LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF 

CALIFORNIA 

IRVINE 


NO, 


T'h 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/citysuperintendeOOtheiiala 


THE  CITY  SUPERINTENDENT 
AND  THE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 


BY 

WILLIAM  WALTER  THEISEN,  Ph.D. 


TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 
CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  EDUCATION,  No.  84 


PUBLISHED  BY 

d^^artf^ra  (HaihQt.  (SoUtmbta  TSininirBit\i 

NEW  YORK  CITY 

1917 


Copyright,   1917 

by 

William  Walter  Theisen 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The  writer  is  indebted  for  the  successful  completion  of  this 
study  to  the  hundreds  of  persons  who  have  participated  in  one 
form  or  another  in  its  making.  He  is  indebted  in  particular  to  the 
members  of  the  seminar  in  Educational  Administration,  to  Pro- 
fessor Milo  B.  Hillegas,  to  Professor  EUwood  P.  Cubberley,  and 
to  Professor  George  Drayton  Stray er  for  valuable  criticisms  and 
suggestions.  He  is  especially  indebted  to  Professor  Strayer,  who 
first  suggested  the  problem  and  through  whose  untiring  efforts 
in  enlisting  the  cooperation  of  others  the  study  has  been  made 
possible. 


m 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction vii 

I.    The  Board  and  Its  Duties 1 

1.  Cities  of  the  Study 1 

2.  The  Question  of  Legal  Limitations 3 

3.  The  Duties  of  a  Lay  Board  of  Education      ....  6 

4.  The  Work  of  Board  Committees 32 

5.  Summary 59 

II.    The  Administrative  Organization 61 

1.  Need  of  Considering  Administrative  Organization      .        .  62 

2.  Types  of  Administrative  Organization 68 

3.  Administrative  Organization  in  Other  Fields  ....  81 

4.  Summary 99 

III.    Authority  Given  the  Chief  Executive 101 

1.  Matters  of  Instruction 101 

2.  Matters  of  Business 120 

3.  Summary     . 124 

Conclusions  and  Recommendations 125 

Appendix  A:   Proposed  Rules  and  Regulations      .       .       .127 

Appendix  B:   Bibliography 133 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  The  Problem 


The  problem  of  this  study  is  to  discover  how  lay  boards  of 
education  provide  for  the  administration  of  city  school  systems 
through  professional  chief  executives.  The  study  is  concerned 
with  an  analysis  of  the  practices  of  boards  of  education  in  cities 
of  various  sizes,  together  with  an  attempt  to  evaluate  such  prac- 
tices. It  is  an  attempt  to  discover  what  functions  boards  of  edu- 
cation themselves  perform,  as  a  body  or  through  their  commit- 
tees, what  functions  are  delegated  to  executives,  and  how  these 
functions  are  delegated. 

Questions  which  the  study  seeks  to  answer  in  part  at  least 
are :  What  are  the  duties  that  lay  boards  perform  ?  What  is  the 
nature  of  matters  receiving  the  attention  of  boards  ?  What  kind 
of  data  do  they  require  as  a  basis  for  determining  school  policies  ? 
What  functions  are  delegated  to  committees?  What  functions 
are  delegated  to  executive  officers  ?  What  is  the  form  of  admin- 
istrative organization  provided?  To  what  extent  do  boards  rec- 
ognize professional  leadership  in  administrative  matters  and  in 
initiating  school  policies?  Constructively  the  study  seeks  to 
discover  the  duties  that  are  important  for  a  lay  board  to  perform 
as-opposed  to  those  that  are  trivial  or  that  are  professional  and 
administrative.  It  seeks  to  discover  those  functions  that  should 
be  delegated  to  the  professional  chief  executive  and  his  assist- 
ants and  the  scope  of  authority  that  should  be  given  them.  And, 
finally  it  seeks  to  discover  how,  with  such  functions  delegated 
to  professional  executive  officers,  a  lay  board  may  exercise  effi- 
cient control  of  the  responsibilities  imposed  upon  them  by  the 
state. 

2.  Criteria 

An  effort  will  be  made  in  this  study  to  use  objective  measures 
as  far  as  possible.     These  will  be  supplemented  by  the  results  of 

vii 


^y 


viii  Introduction 

a  group  of  judgments  and  by  analogies  with  similar  practices  in 
the  fields  of  business  and  city  administration. 

The  first  criterion  which  we  may  apply  is  use  or  waste  of 
salaried  professional  skill  actually  purchased.  As  a  corollary  to 
this  may  be  added  the  employment  or  non-employment  of  the 
highest  degree  of  skill  available  for  the  salary  paid.  It  is  a  fair 
measure  to  place  an  unfavorable  evaluation  upon  that  board 
practice  which  employs  a  superintendent  for  the  professional 
service  he  is  capable  of  rendering,  and  then  either,  on  account  of 
the  board's  own  ignorance  or  egotism,  fails  to  utilize  this  pro- 
fessional skill  for  which  it  is  paying.  In  this  category  may  be 
placed  such  matters  as  the  failure  to  recognize  the  professional 
character  of  educational  leadership,  the  failure  to  give  the  super- 
intendent as  chief  executive  the  power  to  control  the  educational 
aspects  of  all  departments  of  the  system,  or  the  failure  to  give 
him  the  necessary  authority  to  secure  the  results  of  which  he  is 
capable. 

A  second  criterion  which  may  be  applied  is  economical  use  of 
time  at  the  board's  disposal,  e.g.,  as  represented  by  the  distri- 
bution of  time  in  board  meetings.  The  assumption  in  this  case 
is  that  the  consideration  which  different  matters  coming  before  a 
board  will  receive  is,  roughly  speaking,  inversely  proportional  to 
the  number  of  questions  considered.  The  practice  which  gives 
lengthy  consideration  to  trivial  matters  with  the  result  that  large 
and  important  questions  are  passed  upon  with  scant  treatment 
or  that  attemps  to  deal  with  fifty  questions  in  one  meeting  when 
it  has  time  enough  to  consider  adequately  only  a  few  large  ques- 
tions is  not  to  be  considered  on  the  same  plane  with  one  that 
centers  its  attention  on  important  matters,  and  leaves  adminis- 
trative details  to  be  attended  to  by  the  professional  leaders  it 
employs. 

A  third  criterion  to  be  used  is  precision  or  definiteness,  i.  e., 
acting  on  adequate  or  inadequate  information  in  determining 
school  policies  as  in  such  matters  as  the  budget.  The  practice 
which  passes  upon  a  budget  containing  ten  items  in  lump  sums, 
not  knowing  whether  they  represent  the  actual  school  needs  in 
relation  to  the  financial  ability  of  the  city  or  not,  is  not  to  be 
compared  in  point  of  administrative  efficiency  with  that  which 
passes  upon  a  budget  knowing  just  what  proportion  of  its  funds 


Introduction  ix 

is  to  go  for  each  of  the  different  forms  of  service — adminis- 
trative control,  supervision,  teaching,  text-books,  fuel,  supplies, 
janitor  service,  repairs — that  knows  how  these  proportions  com- 
pare from  building  to  building,  from  year  to  year  or  with  sim- 
ilar items  in  other  cities;  that  knows  how  these  items  compare 
in  terms  of  per  pupil  cost;  that  knows  something  of  the  reasons 
for  differences  in  cost ;  that  knows  how  large  a  burden  may  rea- 
sonably be  placed  upon  the  taxable  wealth  of  the  community  for 
education  in  the  light  of  what  it  must  spend  in  other  endeavors ; 
and  that  knows  whether  or  not  it  has  secured  ample  returns  from 
previous  expenditures  in  the  way  of  achievements. 

As  a  fourth  criterion,  though  largely  subjective,  we  may 
use  familiarity  displayed  by  a  board  with  its  own  actions.  We 
may  evaluate  unfavorably  the  action  of  a  board  that  permits 
committee  judgments  to  serve  without  question  as  board  judg- 
ments on  matters  of  policy  or  administration ;  that  accepts  com- 
mittee reports  without  discussion  or  that  does  not  require  ade- 
quate reports  of  executive  officers  nor  discuss  them. 


THE    CITY    SUPERINTENDENT    AND    THE    BOARD 
OF  EDUCATION 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  BOARD  AND  ITS  DUTIES 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  primarily  to  consider  the  duties 
of  a  board  of  education  and  of  its  committees.  It  is  aimed  to 
select,  if  possible,  from  the  wide  range  of  duties  performed  by 
boards  of  education,  those  duties  which  are  of  vital  importance. 
It  is  aimed  to  select  those  that  are  worthy  of  a  board's  attention, 
as  opposed  to  those  that  are  of  trivial  importance  or  that  are  pro- 
fessional in  nature  and  which  ought  therefore  to  be  delegated  to 
the  superintendent  or  his  assistants.  There  are  those  who 
fear  that  in  the  modern  demand  that  the  superintendent  be  given 
large  powers,  the  board  of  education  will  have  little  left  to  do 
and,  as  a  result,  will  not  attract  to  its  membership  the  commun- 
ity's most  capable  citizens.  We  shall  present  in  this  chapter  a 
tentative  list  of  the  more  important  duties  of  a  board  of  educa- 
tion, ranked  in  their  approximate  order  of  importance  as  judged 
by  several  hundred  competent  judges.  As  to  the  proper  func- 
tion of  board  committees,  the  writer  does  not  hope  to  reach  a 
complete  solution  of  the  problem  in  this  study.  A  thorough 
solution  of  the  committee  question  would  require  a  special  inves- 
tigation in  itself.  We  shall  present  the  evidence  found,  viewing 
it  in  the  light  of  certain  other  factors  which  influence.  We  may 
to  a  certain  extent  evaluate  the  work  performed  by  committees 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  duties  that  should  be  performed  by 
the  board  as  a  whole  and  in  light  of  the  same  criteria  that  are 
to  be  applied  to  the  larger  body. 

1.  Cities  of  the  Study 

Table  I  gives  the  cities  whose  rules  and  regulations  were  ana- 
lyzed.^    In  it  is  given  also  the  population  of  each  city  to  the  near- 

1  In  two  of  these  cities  the  board  publishes  no  rules  and  reg^ulations. 
In  one  of  these  the  writer  made  a  personal  investigation  in  some  detail  to 

1 


2       The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

est  thousand  as  given  by  the  last  Federal  Census,  the  size  of  the 
board,  and  the  number  of  board  committees  for  each  city.  Table 
II  gives  the  cities  whose  minutes  were  examined. 

TABLE  I 


City 


1.  Norwalk,    Conn...  25,000 

2.  Chester,  Pa 39,000 

3.  Cleveland    560,000 

4.  Akron,   Ohio    69,000 

5.  New  York    4,767,000 

6.  Salt  Lake 93,000 

7.  Waltham,  Mass. .  .  28,000 

8.  New  Orleans 339,000 

9.  Wausau,  Wis.   . . .  17,000 

10.  Grand  Rapids   ...  113,000 

11.  St.    Louis    687,000 

12.  Yonkers,   N.   Y...  80,000 

13.  Detroit    466,000 

14.  Rochester     218,000 

15.  Fall   River,    Mass.  119,000 

16.  Minneapolis    301,000 

17.  Syracuse   137,000 

18.  Newton,  Mass.   . .  40,000 

19.  Baltimore    558,000 

20.  New  Haven 134,000 

21.  Bridgeport,    Conn.  102,000 

22.  Newburyport, 

Mass '  15,000 

23.  Boston 671,000 

24.  Denver    213,000 

25.  Covington,  Ky.   . ,  53,000 

26.  Louisville    224,000 

27.  San    Francisco    . .  417,000 

28.  Cedar  Rapids,  la.  33,000 

29.  St.  Joseph,   Mo...  77,000 

30.  Evansville,    Ind...  70,000 

31.  Fort    Worth    73,000 

32.  Moline,    111 24,000 

33.  New       Brunswick, 

N.  J 23,000 

34.  Elgin,  111 26,000 

35.  Spokane    104,000 

36.  Houston    79,000 

37.  Laramie,  Wyo.    . .  8,000 

38.  Lead,    S.    D 8,000 

39.  Topeka    44,000 

40.  Nashville    110,000 

41.  Chicago     2,185,000 

42.  Providence     224,000 

43.  Winston-Salem, 

N.  C 17,000 

44.  Sioux  City,  la 48,000 

45.  Cape    Girardeau . .  8,000 

46.  Seattle     237,000 

47.  Greeley,  Colo.   . . .  8,000 

48.  Calumet,  Mich.  ..  33,000 

49.  Lebanon,  Pa.    ...  19,000 

50.  Pawtucket,   R.  I..  52,000 


5 
5 
5 
5 
4 
7 
6 
3 
7 
13 

5 

13 

5 

7 

6 

5 

13 

9 

21 


46     15 

5       5 


15     16 
18       8 


0 
11 
0 
9 
0 
6 
6 
4 


12     11 


33     m 


3 
7 
6 
6 
5 
6 
6 
12 


City 


51.  Portland,   Ore.    ..  207,000 

52.  Terra  Haute   58,000 

53.  Paterson    126,000 

54.  Richmond     128,000 

55.  Brookline,    Mass..  28,000 

56.  Pittsfield,   Mass...  32,000 

57.  Columbus,  Ohio   .  182,000 

58.  Joliet,    111 35,000 

59.  Omaha    150,000 

60.  Lincoln,   Nebr.    . .  44,000 

61.  Indianapolis     234,000 

62.  Beverley,   Mass.    .  19,000 

63.  Brockton,  Mass...  57,000 

64.  Central  Falls,  R.I.  23,000 

65.  Westport,    Mass..  3,000 

66.  Waterbury,    Conn.  73,000 

67.  Philadelphia 1,549,000 

68.  Harrisburg     64,000 

69.  Schenectady 73,000 

70.  Pine  Bluffs,  Ark..  15,000 

71.  Fort  Smith,  Ark..  24,000 

72.  Montgomery,   Ala.  38,000 

73.  Manchester,    N.H.  70,000 

74.  Toplin,   Mo 32,000 

75.  Lockport,    N.    Y..  18,000 

76.  Freeport,    N.    Y..  5,000 

77.  Everett,  Wash.   ..  25,000 

78.  Oakland,  Cal.    . . .  150,000 

79.  Fargo,   N.    D.    ...  14,000 

80.  Charleston,  S.  C. .  59,000 

81.  Boulder,    Colo.    . .  10,000 

82.  Wakefield,   Mass..  11,000 

83.  Wichita     52,000 

84.  Johnstown,  Pa.   . .  55,000 

85.  Charlotte,    N.    C.  34,000 

86.  Columbia,  S.   C...  26,000 

87.  Racine,  Wis 38,000 

88.  Newport,  Ky.    . . .  30,000 

89.  Worcester,  Mass..  146,000 

90.  Milton,  Mass.    ...  8,000 

91.  Holyoke,   Mass.    .  58,000 

92.  Lawrence,    Mass..  86,000 

93.  Kansas   City,   Mo.  248,000 

94.  West   Point,  Nebr.  1,800 

95.  Pierce,    Nebr.    ...  1,200 

96.  Cortland,  N.  Y...  12,000 

97.  Fremont,   Nebr.    .  9,000 

98.  Portland,  Me.    .  . .  59,000 

99.  Middletown,    N.Y.  15,000 
100.  Winchester,  Mass.  9,000 


•d 

s 

n 

u 

o 

o 

u 

N 

n 

w 

^ 

5 

8 

5 

0 

9 

4 

9 

4 

9 

5 

15 

IS 

7 

6 

7 

9 

12 

6 

6 

6 

5 

5 

7 

4 

10 

9 

6 

6 

3 

1 

7 

5 

15 

8 

9 

5 

5 

5 

6 

5 

6 

5 

5 

5 

12 

4 

6 

5 

12 

8 

5 

2 

5 

5 

7 

4 

9 

8 

10 

7 

5 

5 

6 

5 

12 

11 

9 

4 

17 

7 

7 

5 

18 

8 

12 

15 

30 

14 

6 

3 

9 

11 

5 

0 

6 

10 

6 

6 

6 

0 

9 

9 

6 

4 

13 

17 

9 

5 

determine  what  is  the  actual  practice.  The  other  is  a  small  city  with 
which  the  writer  was  for  a  number  of  years  intimately  connected  in  his 
capacity  as  superintendent. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties 


TABLE  II 


City 


City 


1.  Seattle     237,000  S 

2.  Pittsburg    534,000  15 

3.  St.   Louis   687,000  12 

4.  Reading    96,000  9 

S.Worcester     146,000  30 

6.  Newark     347,000  9 

7.  Albany    100,000  3 

8.  Milwaukee    374,000  IS 

9.  Somerville,  Mass.   .  77,000  14 

10.  Lancaster,    Pa.    ...  47,000  7 

11.  Muskegon    24,000  6 

12.  East  Orange   34,000  5 

13.  Grand  Rapids    113,000  9 

14.  Lincoln    44,000  6 

15.  Omaha    150,000  12 

16.  Fremont,   Nebr.    . .  9,000  6 

17.  West  Point,   Nebr.  1,800  6 

18.  Pierce,    Nebr.    .  .  .  1,200  6 

19.  Schenectady     73,000  5 

20.  Dunkirk,   N.  Y....  17,000  8 

21.  Millville,  N.  J 12,000  5 

22.  Topeka    44,000  13 

23.  Framingham,  Mass.  13,000  6 

24.  Whitehall,  N.  Y...  5,000  5 

25.  La  Porte,  Ind    ...  11,000  3 

26.  Benton  Harbor  . . .  9,000  6 

27.  Boise,  Idaho   17,000  6 

28.  Bloomington,    Ind.  9,000  3 

29.  Kewanee,    111 9,000  — 

30.  Burlington,    Vt.    .  .  20,000  6 


6 

3 
4 
4 
14 
4 
0 
6 


4 
5 
4 
6 
6 
4 
6 

0 
S 

11 

6 

2 


31.  Paducah,   Ky 

32.  Salem,    Mass 

33.  Council    Bluffs,    la. 

34.  New    Orleans    .  . . . 

35.  Richmond     

36.  Carthage,    Mo.    .  . . 

37.  Owatonna,    Minn.. 

38.  Martins  Ferry,  O. . 

39.  Waterloo,    la 

40.  Bellaire,    O 

41.  Mansfield,   O 

42.  Plattsmouth,   Neb.. 

43.  Wichita,  Kans.   . . . 

44.  Lead,  S.  D 

45.  San  Antonio    

46.  Mitchell,  S.  D    ... 

47.  Des  Moines   

48.  Winfield,    Kans.    .. 

49.  Kalamazoo    

50.  Ypsilanti     

51.  Chatham,    N.   J.... 

52.  Louisville     

53.  Montclair    

54.  Bridgeport      

55.  Chicago     

56.  Jersey    City    

57.  Cleveland    

58.  Elizabeth    

59.  New    York     

60.  Los  Angeles    


Oh 

23,000 

44,000 

29,000 

339,00ff 

128,000 

9,000 

6,000 

9,000 

27,000 

13,000 

21,000 

4,000 

52,000 

8,000 

97,000 

66,000 

86,000 

7,000 

39,000 

6,000 

2,000 

224,000 

22,000 

102,000 

2,185,000 

268,000 

560,000 

73,000 

4,767,000 

319,000 


5  — 

5  — 

7  6 

5  4 
9  4 

6  — 
S  — 

5  — 

6  — 

8  10 

5  — 

6  — 
12  11 


3 
8 

5 

0 

4 

9 

8 

6 

13 

46     15 

7       6 


NOTE — In  both  Tables  I  and  II,  where  several  visiting  or  building  committees 
and  the  like  have  been  found  in  a  single  city,  they  have  in  each  case  been  com- 
bined into  a   single  visiting  or  building  committee. 


2.  The  Question  of  Legal  Limitations 

It  is  not  deemed  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  this  study  to  enter 
into  an  analysis  of  the  legal  limitations  affecting  the  powers  and 
duties  of  city  boards  of  education.  While  the  statutes,  on  the 
one  hand,  do  not  for  the  most  part  prescribe  the  exact  form  in 
which  these  duties  shall  be  exercised,  they  do  not,  on  the  other 
hand,  prevent  boards  from  exercising  good  judgment  through 
the  application  of  sound  business  principles  in  providing  for  the 
administration  of  the  school  system,  

Among  the  powers  and  duties  commonly  granted  to  city  boards 
of  education  are  these :  to  employ  teachers  and  fix  their  salaries ; 
to  determine  courses  of  study  and  adopt  text-books,  in  so  far  as 
not  regulated  by  state  law;  to  purchase  fuel  and  supplies;  to 
divide  the  city  into  districts  for  purposes  of  distributing  attend- 
ance; to  submit  bond  issues  to  a  vote  of  the  electors;  to  recom- 


L 


4       The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

mend  the  tax  levy;  to  have  care  and  oversight  of  school  prop- 
erty. The  purchase  and  location  of  sites  and  the  erection  of 
buildings  is  frequently  restricted  by  requiring  a  vote  of  approval 
by  the  electors,  or  in  dependent  city  districts,  by  removing  the 
power  to  purchase  sites  and  erect  buildings  to  other  controlling 
bodies. 

This  study  is  concerned  with  the  way  in  which  provision  is 
made  in  the  by-laws  of  boards  for  the  performance  of  duties 
commonly  devolving  upon  them.  It  is  concerned  with  what 
boards  do,  whether  it  be  the  result  of  inactivity  or  over-activity, 
or  whether  it  be  the  result  of  legal  restriction,  or  a  combination 
of  these  factors.  It  is  true  that  boards  are  not  altogether  respon- 
sible for  not  doing  what  they  may  be,  by  statute,  prevented  from 
doing,  but  their  responsibility  in  that  case  lies  in  utilizing  the 
means  at  their  command  for  securing  necessary  changes  in  the 
laws.  In  short,  we  are  interested  in  finding  how  different  forms 
^v  of  board  practice  contribute  to  or  hinder  efficient  school  admin- 
istration. 

Even  a  casual  examination  of  state  school  laws  is  sufficient  to 
convince  the  student  of  educational  administration  that  the  stat- 
utes do  not  prevent  boards  from  knowing  what  they  are  doing; 
from  bending  every  effort  (except  in  San  Francisco,  which  pro- 
vides for  popular  election  of  the  superintendent)  to  secure  as 
their  chief  executive  officer  the  most  capable  man  available;  from 
looking  to  their  chief  executive  for  recommendations  on  ques- 
tions of  policy;  from  requiring  of  their  executive  officers  ade- 
quate reports  of  the  educational  progress  and  business  conditions 
of  the  school  system;  from  an  intelligent  discussion  of  such 
reports;  from  requiring  their  chief  executive  and  his  assistants 
to  submit  a  detailed  analysis  of  proposed  expenditures  and  prob- 
able receipts,  showing  just  what  each  unit  of  educational  en- 
deavor will  probably  cost;  from  centering  their  own  attention 
on  large  questions  of  policy  and  devoting  a  greater  share  of  their 
time  to  large  questions  rather  than  to  trivial  matters.  An  exam- 
ination of  school  laws  reveals  further  that  boards  are  not  deterred 
by  legal  provisions,  from  refusing  to  appoint  teachers  and  other 
officers,  so  far  as  the  appointive  power  rests  with  the  board, 
except  as  they  are  nominated  and  recommended  by  the  chief 
executive..    It  does  not  prevent  them  from  refusing  to  squander 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  5 

their  own  time  in  listening  to  personal  complaints  and  communi- 
cations unless  it  is  found  that  the  matter  in  question  cannot  be 
adjusted  satisfactorily  by  those  whom  it  employs  to  administer 
its  system  of  education. 

While  charters  and  general  school  laws  do  restrict  boards  in 
some  cities  by  placing  the  money  raising  power,  or  the  power 
to  determine  the  location  of  sites  and  the  erection  of  school 
buildings,  in  other  hands,  they  may  at  least  attempt  to  see  that 
these  other  bodies  are  provided  with  adequate  information  regard- 
ing the  needs  of  the  school  system.  They  may  see  that  the  city 
authorities  or  the  legislature  have  opportunity  to  learn  what  is 
needed  by  the  schools  in  the  way  of  money,  or  types  of  educa- 
tional endeavor.  They  may  enlighten  the  people  of  the  com- 
munity as  to  the  community's  educational  needs.  They  may  make 
an  honest  effort  to  secure  information  as  to  whether  or  not  the 
proposed  expenditures  are  a  fair  and  just  burden  upon  the  taxable 
wealth  of  the  community. 

Some  provisions  may  be  noted,  however,  that  require  certain 
administrative  functions  to  be  delegated.  The  Pennsylvania 
school  law  ^  provides  that  in  school  districts  of  the  first  class 
"associate  and  assistant  district  superintendents  may  be  appointed 
by  the  board  of  school  directors,  upon  nomination  of  the  super- 
intendent of  schools.  .  .  .  They  shall  be  under  the  supervision 
and  direction  of  the  superintendent  of  schools."  It  further  pro- 
vides ^  that,  "All  plans  for  new  school  construction,  additions  or 
repairs  shall  be  approved  by  the  superintendent  of  buildings  and 
shall  be  submitted  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  for  criticism, 
before  submission  to  the  board  of  public  education  for  adoption." 
The  St.  Louis  charter  provides  *  that,  "All  appointments,  promo- 
tions and  transfers  of  teachers,  and  introduction  and  changes  of 
text-books  and  apparatus,  shall  be  made  only  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  superintendent  and  the  approval  of  the  board." 
In  some  instances  the  law  provides  certain  statutory  commit- 
tees. New  York  City's  charter  provides  '^  that,  "It  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  board  of  education  ...  to  appoint  an  executive 
committee  of  fifteen  members  of  the  board."     It  does  not,  how- 

»  Pennsylvania  School  Law,  1913,  Art.  XXII,  Sec.  2224. 

8  Ibid.,  Sec.  2231. 

*  St.  Louis  Charter,  Sec.  7. 

»  New  York  City  Charter,  Sec.  1063. 


/ 


6       The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

ever,  require  that  the  board  provide,  as  it  does,  fourteen  addi- 
tional standing  committees. 

In  evaluating  the  practices  of  boards  of  education,  error  may 
be  made  in  giving  credit  to  boards  for  meritorious  service; 
whereas,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  may  be  doing  only  what  the 
law  compels  them  to  do.  Such  error  would  tend  to  place  the 
practices  of  boards  in  a  more  favorable  light.  Error  may  be 
made  in  the  opposite  direction,  when  certain  criteria  are  applied, 
condemning  boards  for  not  doing  what  they  may  be  prevented  by 
law  from  doing.  However  this  may  be,  our  purpose,  as  stated, 
is  to  evaluate  the  practice  of  boards  as  it  makes  for  or  does  not 
make  for  efficient  school  administration. 

3.  The  Duties  of  a  Lay  Board  of  Education 

a.  Duties  Undertaken  in  Practice 

(1)  The  Kind  of  Matters  Considered  in  Meetings.  That  the 
reader  may  form  some  conception  of  the  nature  of  matters  which 
occupy  the  attention  of  boards  of  education,  matters  reported  in 
the  proceedings  were  tabulated.  Table  III  includes  all  matters 
considered  by  boards,  when  not  in  the  form  of  committee  reports, 
for  the  first  two  meetings  ^  whose  minutes  were  received  for  the 
sixty  cities  in  Table  11.^  Too  much  significance  must  not  be 
attached  to  the  frequency  of  different  matters  found  because  cer- 
tain types  of  business  are  more  apt  to  be  taken  up  in  a  given 
meeting  than  others.  Bills  of  expenditure  are  commonly  pre- 
sented each  month,  while  such  a  matter  as  the  budget  may  be 
confined  to  one  or  two  meetings  each  year  and  a  question  of  bond 
issue  or  the  selection  of  a  chief  executive  may  not  occur  in  sev- 
eral years.  Evaluation  of  the  matters  found  to  be  engaging 
the  attention  of  boards  is  reserved  for  later  sections  of  the  study. 

(2)  The  Kind  of  Data  Required  by  Boards.  One  criterion  of 
the  efficiency  with  which  a  board  discharges  its  legislative  func- 
tions is  the  precision  or  accuracy  of  the  information  it  requires 

'■—as  a  basis  for  passing  upon  proposed  school  policies.     It  is  at  the 

•  In  some  instances  only  minutes  of  one  meeting  were  received. 

^  Except  for  reports  of  officers  only  matters  occurring  in  three  or  more 
cities  are  given  in  the  table.  Matters  merely  referred  to  committees  or 
officers  are  not  included  for  the  reason  that  such  matters  may  be  referred 
by  the  president  without  board  consideration. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  7 

TABLE  III8 
I.  Reports  of  Executive  Officers  *§ 

Superintendent's  Report  on : —  ^ 

/-  Proposed  extensions  or  readjustments  of  the  scope  of  educational 
activities :   1.  3.  4,  5,  10,  12.  13,  19.  20,  21,  29,  32,  34,  40,  42.  53,  56, 

57,  58,  60 20 

Progress  of  the  schools: 

(a)  Achievement  of  pupils :    34 1 

(b)  Number  of  visits  of  supervision:    8,  10 2 

(c)  Enrollment  and  attendance :  2,  3,  4,  6,  8,  10,  13,  21,  29,  32,  33, 

36.  37,  59,  61 15 

Matters  pertaining  to  capital  outlays,  buildings,  sites,  improvements : 

1,  21,  61 3 

Selection  of  text-books  or  course  of  study:  2,  3,  19,  21,  31,  34,  36,  45, 

46,   54,   59 11 

Matters  pertaining  to  maintenance  expenditures :    1,  3,  16,  23,  30,  31, 

33,  41,  44,  45,  53,  54 12 

Appointment  of  teachers :    2,  3.  6,  20.  23,  27.  32,  34,  35,  38,  41,  45, 

51,  53,  56,  58,  60 17 

^^Assignment,  transfer,  resignation,  leave  of  absence,  or  promotion  of 

teachers :  2,  3,  4,  5,  10,  20,  29,  31,  33,  34,  35,  53,  56,  58,  60 15 

Questions  of  salaries  or  pensions  :    2,  3,  20,  41,  45,  53,  58,  61 8 

Permits  granted  for  use  of  building :   3,  57,  59 3 

Appointments  of  board  of  examiners:    48 1 

Appointments  of  administrative  employees:    3,  61 2 

Educational  meetings  attended  :    9 1 

Communications  or  complaints  received :    1,  8,  34,  35,  53 5 

Changes  in  rules  and  regulations :    4,  34 2 

Length  of  school  session,  vacation  dates :    10,  40 2 

Suspension  of  pupil :   29 1 

Granting  diplomas  :    33 1 

Receipts  from  school  entertainments:    19 1 

Superintendent  of  Buildings  or  Superintendent  of  Supplies : — 
Progress  of  construction  and  amounts  due  on  contracts:    2,  3,  14, 

20,  21   5 

Matters  of  maintenance  expenditure  or  equipment:   2,  3,  14,  33,  34, 

57,   59 7 

Inspection  of  buildings,  or  materials,  and  amounts  on  hand:  2,  3,  57.  3 

Appointments  and  suspensions  :    3,  56 2 

Permits  granted  or  recommended  :   2,  3,  56 3 

Recommending  investigation  of  building  department :   3 1 

Secretary,  Business  Manager  ^  : — 

Business  transacted  or  pending:  2,  3,  6,  13,  17,  21,  34,  58,  61 9 

'Numbers  refer  to  cities  of  Table  II. 

*  Exclusive  of  receipts,  expenditures,  conditions  of  funds,  or  bills  to  be 
paid. 


8       The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Officers  in  charge  of  special  departments : — 

Medical  inspection :   6,  11,  12,  19,  21,  30,  33,  59 8 

Attendance :   4,  5,  6,  9,  10,  11,  13,  21,  33,  56,  59 11 

Attorney: — legal  opinions,  matters  pending  or  adjusted:    3,  15,  57 3 

President's  annual  report :   8 1 

II 

Appointments,  consider:    (a)  Teachers:  9,  10,1°  25,  29,  30,  34,  54 7 

(b)  Nurse :    32 1 

(c)  Janitors :    14,  17,  27,  2,7,  43 5 

(d)  Business  employees  :    12,  28,  38 3 

Adopt  text-books  or  courses  of  study:    5,  12,  20,  45,  50 5 

^Approve  or  reject  expenditures:    1,  2,  3,  7,  9,  12,  14,  16,  18,  20,  22,  23, 
24,  25,  27,  28,  29,  30,  31,  33,  36,  37,  39,  40,  41,  43,  44,  46,  49,  51,  54,  59.     32 

Expenditures,  authorize:    10,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  18,  20,  21,  22,  29,  30, 
33,  36,  41,  42,  45,  46,  47,  49,  54,  58 22 

Grant  leaves  of  absence  to  teachers  or  others :    22,  24,  31,  32,  34,  39, 
43,  45 8 

Grant  use  of  buildings  or  grounds :  12,  14,  16,  25,  26,  27,  30,  32, 
48,  56 10 

Building  insurance :   29,  30,  43,  46 4 

School  calendar:  9,  10,  18,  24,  35,  36,  39,  40,  44,  46,  47,  49,  56,  57, 
58,  59 16 

Resignations  of  teachers  accepted :    18,  Z7,  47 3 

Authorize  teachers,  superintendent  or  board  members  to  attend  educa- 
tional gatherings :  29,  37,  44,  48 : 4 

Non-resident  tuition :    12,  29,  30,  34,  36,  43 6 

Question  of  bids,  supplies  or  equipment:  1,  2,  7,  12,  14,  15,  17,  20, 
21,  25,  28,  29,  31,  ZZ,  34,  35,  37,  41,  54,  55,  57,  58 22 

Questions  pertaining  to  legal  matters : 

Official  bonds  :   10,  13,  17,  46,  51 5 

Legal  proceedings  to  quiet  title :    47 1 

Heard  report  of  receipts,  expenditures  and  condition  of  f  urfds :  2,  3, 
4,  6,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  18,  20,  21,  29,  31,  33,  34,  36,  42, 
SI,  57,  58,  59,  61 27 

Consider  questions  of  capital  outlays  and  means  of  financing: 

Bonds :  2,  13,  27.  36,  50,  51,  55,  58 8 

Sites  and  buildings :    10,  36,  43,  47,  48,  49,  60 7 

Consider  matters  of  salary :   34,  42,  43,  48,  55 5 

Communications  and  complaints,  written  or  oral:  1,  2,  3,  5,  6,  8,  14, 
15,  17,  19,  20,  21  25,  26,  29,  31-7,  39-41,  43-5,  48,  51,  53-7,  59-61 38 

10  Voted  on  all  applicants. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  9 

Plans  and  specifications  :  2,  6,  32,  33,  54,  55,  60 7 

Consider  questions  of  budget,  including  sources  of  revenue:    1,  2,  12, 

17-8,  20-1,  24-5,  27,  35,  37,  43,  46-7,  49,  51,  57 18 

Questions  of  representing  needs  before  city  authorities  or  the  legis- 
lature :  7,  9,  34,  53,  57,  59,  60 7 

Select  (a)  Chief  executive:    38,  56 2 

(b)  Other  executive  officers :    10-12,  15,  32,  36» 6 

same  time  a  measure  of  the  facts  as  to  whether  or  not  a  board 
is  holding  its  chief  executive  responsible  for  results  and  whether 
or  not  it  is  demanding  that  the  chief  executive,  through  such  in- 
struments as  the  budget,  shall  initiate  new  policies.     A  board 
which  votes  a  lump  sum  of  $100,000  for  teachers'  salaries  without 
knowing  how  many  teachers  at  each  grade  and  type  of  service  and 
without  knowing  wherein  and  why  there  are  differences   from 
previous  years,  or  which  appropriates  a  lump  sum  of  $10,000  for 
fuel  and  supplies  without  knowing  whether  this  money  is  being 
spent  where  most  needed,  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  properly  serv- 
ing its  community.     We  may  select  two  topics   for  measuring     F 
practice  of  boards  in  this  respect,  the  budget  and  the  reports      \ 
of  its  officers.     The  importance  of  adopting  the  annual  budget  as      "V 
recommended  by  the  chief  executive  and  that  of  requiring  and       I 
considering  reports  may  be  judged  from  the  tentative  scale  of        I 
board  duties.  — — -^ 

(a)  The  Form  of  Budget  Adopted.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to 
enter  mto  an  exhaustive  study  of  budget  making.  We  may, 
however,  examine  the  data  of  boards  for  certain  matters  of  infor- 
mation which  contribute  most  effectively  to  a  board's  ability  to 

pass  upon  school  policies.     In  any  scientifically  constructed  bud- 

get  data  are  necessary  which  will  show  whether  school  funds  are    I 
being  expended  for  those  things  which  mean  most  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  children,  whether  they  are  sufficient  to  purchase  a   \ 
high  quality  of  instruction,  and  whether  they  represent  a   fair 
proportion  of  the  community's  ability  to  support  good  schoolSj__i 
The  science  of  educational  administration  has  established  norms  ^^ 
for  the  guidance  of  boards  which  make  it  unnecessary  to  guess  in 
matters  involving  annually,  as  in  some  cities,  millions  of  dollars. 

*^  For  data  on  this  point  see  the  studies  of  Strayer,  UpdegraflF,  and 
Elliott. 


10     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Note  was  made  wherever  the  budget  had  been  considered  in 
the  meetings  for  which  minutes  were  received.  In  addition 
information  was  secured  in  a  number  of  cities  visited.  As  a  result 
data  were  secured  from  seventeen  cities,  though  not  complete  in 
every  case.  Annual  reports  of  these  cities,  where  published,  were 
also  examined  for  whatever  data  essential  in  budget  making  were 
included.     The  cities  thus  selected  are : 

Albany  Lincoln  ,  Pierce,  Nebr. 

Bridgeport  Milwaukee  Pittsburg 

Fremont,  Nebr.  Newark  Richmond,  Va. 

Grand  Rapids  Norwalk,  Conn.  Schenectady 

Jersey  City  Omaha  West  Point,  Nebr. 

Kansas  City,  Mo.  Owatonna,  Minn. 

We  cannot  in  every  instance  state  positively  that  the  board 
did  or  did  not  possess  certain  types  of  information  which  would 
enable  it  to  act  intelligently  upon  matters  of  financial  policy. 
However,  the  rare  instances  in  which  any  evidence  is  found  either 
in  the  proceedings  or  reports  seems  significant.  In  only  one 
instance,  Schenectady,^^  is  the  board  known  to  possess  data  show- 
ing the  per  cent  of  expenditures  devoted  to  each  major  item  of 
expense.  Two  others,  Norwalk  ^^  and  Pittsburg,^*  have  such 
data  for  some  of  the  items. 

In  Schenectady  the  board,  when  considering  its  budget,  had 
before  it,  through  the  initiative  of  its  chief  executive,  data  show- 
ing the  percentage  distribution  of  each  major  item,  administra- 
tion, teaching,  supervision,  text-books,  supplies,  etc.,  for  the  pres- 
ent and  preceding  year  together  with  that  proposed  for  the  com- 
ing year.  It  had  data  showing  similar  facts  for  thirty-three 
other  cities  of  its  class,  from  which  could  be  determined  the 
median,  maximum,  or  minimum  devoted  to  each  item  by  these 
cities  and  by  which  the  board  could  be  guided  in  passing  upon  its 
own  budget.  In  at  least  six  other  cities,  each  of  which  was  vis- 
ited by  the  writer,  the  board  does  not  have  information  showing 
percentage  distributions. 

With  reference  to  per  pupil  costs  for  these  major  items  of 
expenditure  there   is   evidence  that   the   board   is   informed   in 

1*  Meeting  attended  by  the  writer,  January  11,  1916. 

"  Report,  1915,  p.  28. 

"  Report,  1914,  pp.  247  and  265. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  11 

Newark,  Pittsburg,  Schenectady,  and  Grand  Rapids.  It  has 
information  on  some  of  these  items  in  Norwalk  and  Lincoln. 
We  have  no  evidence  that  this  is  true  of  the  remaining  eleven 
cities.  We  are  certain  that  three  of  the  small  cities  do  not, 
Pierce,  West  Point,  and  Fremont,  Nebr.  Some  of  the  cities  do 
not  even  have  the  bare  per  pupil  total  for  maintenance  costs. 

Only  three,  Bridgeport,  Norwalk,  and  Richmond,  give  evi- 
dence of  possessing  a  knowledge  of  what  per  cent  of  the  city's 
funds  are  devoted  to  schools  and  how  this  compares  with  other 
cities  of  the  same  class.  When  we  examine  the  budgets  of  these 
cities  we  find  few  that  have  subdivided  items  sufficiently  to  show 
unit  cost  estimates  of  any  sort.  Yet  such  unit  terms  are  neces- 
sary if  the  board  is  to  know  whether  increased  cost  is  to  mean 
greater  quantity,  better  quality  or  higher  price  of  materials  or 
service.  With  unit  price  specifications  of  supplies  of  all  kinds, 
allowing  somewhat  for  market  fluctuations,  and  data  showing 
quantities  of  each  kind  required,  by  buildings,  it  would  be  pos- 
sible to  obviate  the  necessity  of  passing  upon  requisitions  for 
supplies  meeting  after  meeting  as  many  boards  do.  If  these 
are  allowed  in  the  budget  with  the  maximum  prices  which  the 
board  will  consent  to  pay  fixed,  it  becomes  unnecessary  to  re- 
peatedly pass  upon  requisitions  for  supplies,  authorize  bids,  and 
consider  such  bids  in  board  meeting.  Executive  officers  can 
be  entrusted  with  performing  such  service  if  the  board  fixes  its 
maxima,  permits  executive  officers  to  secure  the  best  prices  pos- 
sible on  given  specifications  and  then  requires  them  to  report  on 
what  has  been  done.  There  is  no  evident  reason  why  this  can- 
not be  done  in  the  field  of  education  as  it  is  in  the  field  of  busi- 
ness. Purchases  would  then  be  controlled  through  the  budget 
and  the  board  would  be  freed  from  petty  administrative  details 
to  devote  its  time  to  large  matters  of  policy. 

When  we  examine  the  budget  or  the  annual  report,  we  find  no 
distribution  table  of  salaries  in  such  cities  as  Pittsburg,  Milwau- 
kee, Grand  Rapids,  Jersey  City,  Newark,  or  Omaha,  as  we  do  in 
the  case  of  Albany. ^^  The  budget  for  Albany  specifies  the  num- 
ber of  teachers  at  each  given  salary.  With  such  data  before  him, 
a  board  member  may  know  whether  he  is  voting  for  a  few  high 
salaried  teachers  and  a  large  number  of  low  ones  or  for  a  large 

^'^  Proceedings,  November  1,  1915. 


12     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

number  which  group  closely  around  the  central  tendency  and  only 
a  few  at  either  extreme. 

Varying  conceptions  of  budget  making  are  found.  In  some 
cities  the  dignified  term  of  "budget"  is  inappropriate.  A  half 
dozen  gross  items  or  less  of  expenditure  and  no  greater  number 
of  revenue  items  are  considered  sufficient  to  complete  the  "budget." 
This  occurs,  if  the  recorded  minutes  are  accurate,  in  Pittsburg,^® 
Bridgeport,  Conn.,^'^  Fremont,^*  Pierce,^^  and  West  Point,  Nebr.^° 
Many  of  the  so-called  "budgets,"  as  superintendents  in  cities  vis- 
ited admit,  are  mere  accumulations.  Previous  years'  expendi- 
tures with  whatever  additions  seem  necessary  constitute  the  essen- 
tials of  a  new  "budget."  There  is  little,  if  any,  attempt  to  devise 
the  budget  along  the  line  of  such  administrative  principles  as 
have  been  indicated.  The  maintenance  budget  of  Newark^^  con- 
tains twelve  lump  items  of  expenditure  exclusive  of  the  salary 
item  which  is  subdivided  into  ten  types.  Jersey  City  ^"^  classifies 
the  expenditures  of  its  maintenance  budget  under  seventeen 
headings,  but  subdivides  "salaries"  into  seven  parts  and  voca- 
tional schools  into  four.  There  is  no  specification  of  the  precise 
way  in  which  expenditures  shall  be  made  in  such  budgets.  The 
building  budget  of  Newark  ^^  is  distinctly  different  in  form  from 
this.  Each  parcel  of  land  with  its  size  and  the  proposed  price 
is  specified.  A  definite  statement  is  made  of  the  number  of 
rooms  to  be  provided  in  each  building  addition  with  the  cost  of 
each.  The  budget  for  Albany  ^*  covers  thirteen  printed  pages. 
While  not  a  model  in  all  respects  it  makes  the  explanation  of 
increases  or  decreases  a  distinctive  feature.  This  is  in  marked 
contrast  to  what  is  found  in  connection  with  the  budget  of  many 
of  the  cities. 

What  is  the  nature  of  the  questions  upon  which  precise  data 
of  the  kind  indicated  above  enable  a  board  member  to  pass 
judgment?  At  Schenectady  data  on  per  cubic  foot  costs  for 
heating  showed  that  of  two  buildings  of  the  same  size,  age  and 
type  of  construction,  one  was  costing  twice  that  of  the  other  for 
fuel.     Obviously  the  problem  was  either  one  of  repairs  or  im- 

18  Minutes,  Dec.  9,  1913.  21  Minutes,  May  4,  1915. 

"  Minutes,  Dec.  9,  1915.  22  Minutes,  June  2,  1915. 

"  Minutes,  July  7,  1915.  23  Minutes,  June  18,  1915. 

"  Personal  observation.  2*  Proceedings,  Nov.  1,  1915. 
»o  Minutes,  June  7,  1915. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  13 

provement  in  janitor  service  and  not  of  fuel.  While  this  is  but  a 
single  instance  of  a  lone  building  it  indicates  the  possibility  of 
losses  where  accurate  and  detailed  data  are  not  compiled  on  items 
which  affect  the  budget.  In  the  same  city,  the  members  of  the 
board  were  enabled  to  see  that  an  increased  cost  of  $7.50  per 
pupil  within  the  past  three  years  was  due  to  an  increase  in  the 
amount  expended  for  janitor  service.  At  Lincoln  per  pupil 
cost  figures  for  the  work  of  each  special  department  gave  the 
board  data  with  which  it  could  weigh  costs  with  probable  achieve- 
ments and  decide  whether  or  not  it  should  encourage  either  of 
these  departments  with  more  liberal  appropriations.  In  Nor- 
walk^'  the  data  accompanying  the  budget  showed  that  36.3  per 
cent  of  the  increased  expenditures  for  teachers'  salaries  was  due 
to  additions  to  the  teaching  force,  that  the  average  per  pupil  cost 
was  the  lowest  of  five  cities  of  its  own  state,  and  that  it  was  more 
than  eight  dollars  less  than  that  of  a  neighboring  state.  The  data 
showed  further  that  the  per  cent  of  city  revenue  spent  for 
schools  was  lower  than  that  of  other  cities  with  which  it  may  be 
compared,  and  that  it  was  spending  11  per  cent  less  than  the. 
average  of  all  cities  of  its  class.  Such  data  should  indicate  to  a 
board  that  its  problem  is  very  probably  that  of  convincing  the 
board  of  estimate  or  other  controlling  body  of  the  need  of  more 
liberal  appropriations  for  schools. 

(b)  The  Reports  of  the  Chief  Executive.  To  determine  if 
possible  the  kind  of  reports  required  or  received  by  boards  of 
education  from  their  chief  executive,  minutes  of  proceedings 
and  annual  reports  from  selected  cities  were  analyzed.  A  first 
group  of  ten  cities  was  selected  at  random  from  those  cities  of 
Table  II  whose  published  proceedings  were  received.  To  secure 
a  random  selection  cities  were  selected  in  order  from  the  proceed- 
ings, as  found  on  the  library  shelves  of  Teachers  College  at  the 
time,  until  a  sufficient  number  meeting  the  required  conditions 
were  secured.  Only  those  were  chosen  for  which  the  proceed- 
ings covered  at  least  an  entire  month  and  which  included  the 
report  of  the  superintendent  in  one  or  more  meetings.  Those 
which  merely  indicated  that  the  superintendent  had  made  a  report 
were  excluded.  In  the  matter  of  annual  reports  it  was  soon  dis- 
covered that  some  of  these  cities  publish  none.  These  may  be 
"  See  Annual  Report,  1915. 


14     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 


< 


>< 

XX 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X    XX 

X 

^ 

> 

X 

X 

X 

X 

XX    , 

t3 

X 

X 

X       X 

X 

H 

8 

CO 

X 

X 

X 

X       XX 

« 

X 

X 

X 

X 

a 

R 

P4 

XX 

X 

o 

XX 

S5 

a 

X 

X 

X 

X 
s 

X 

i-i 

X 

X 

XX 

X 

M 

X 

X 

X 

i-> 

s 

M 

XX 

X 

XX       X    X          X 

» 

X 

s 

X 

X 

X    X 

o 

X 

X 

X 

X 

(K 

XX 

M 

X 

X 

X 

X 

XX 

1; 

X 

Q 

X 

X 

X 

XX 

X 

U 

& 

pq 

X 

X    X 


XXX        X    X 


XX    X 


X         XXX    X 


X      xxxxx 

X 

s 
X        XXXX    X 

X 


X 

XXX 
X 


X 

X    XX 
XX 
X    X 

xxxxx 

XX    XX 


XXXX 


o  o 


Sen 


CO 

"o  o 

OS 


U   O 


.2  c 


•S   O 

u  a 
Ms 

9  >; 


O     S 


—  rt  «*  to 
O  »)  O  5) 

g  a-  o."^ 

3  "S  «  « 
"1  b  O  I-  S 
6  S  I"  «  M 

^  o      go 

Q  jj  +j  y*^ 
■J3  a  '^  S  3 

O  '^  U  «*  m-S 

—-1^    Q 


"o  3  IS 
g2« 


M  rt 


•Xi  t> 


N  m  5 


<"  :S-2. 

3    :  2  rt 


c 

'^  a 

o 

13    o 

a 

•a 

•  «4 

O     A 

10 

bo   C 

s 

<(^ 

u 

zi         "*  «    — 

3    •  €1  S  C        ,.^ 

rt  IS  u)  o  **  (u«~  o  o  o 
>>>>o3     o     ^^  h  h  S 

eg  (I)        4j       ^I?  'J?  '3 

< 


g  :|2 

t<    .  eUi-t 


v  r-5o)   .s  o  o 
V  E 


300 
>>   •  — •« 

.t:  •  o  o 


^  >  C 


Sj:^ 


fe  t;  o 

C  «   -MXH 

e    u  X  V  <« 

»  O  ?i  u 


vu   -  D 


to  ?  2  **  o  ^  "> 

o  SB-" 

3  l-U-^-W   I'M 

'^  O  >.>.!>.0  >» 


a  ta 


*s . 

V       u 

■"^"^ 

4)*0  (O 

2SS. 
"  o  . 

O  C3. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  15 

noted  from  the  blank  columns  of  Table  IV.  As  a  measure  of 
the  superintendent's  report,  selected  objective  items  were  chosen 
and  their  presence  or  absence  noted.  The  particular  items  were 
chosen  with  reference  to  their  serviceability  as  indices  of  desir- 
able policies.  Some  items  may  duplicate  others  somewhat.  This 
is  due  to  a  desire  to  give  due  credit  where  statistics  are  pre- 
sented in  somewhat  less  desirable  form  but  nevertheless  valuable 
in  indicating  desirable  policies.  The  items  are  mainly  of  a  per 
cent  or  per  unit  nature.  Many  formal  tables  were  found  of 
which  no  account  is  taken  for  the  reason  that  such  tables  require 
skill  and  no  small  amount  of  time  for  effective  interpretation. 
They  may  possess  a  mine  of  information,  but  it  is  often  undis- 
covered. 

Table  IV  gives  in  columns  A  to  J  inclusive  the  results  from 
the  published  annual  reports  of  the  first  group  of  ten  cities. 
City  I,  it  may  be  noted,  is  the  only  one  which  gives  the  per  cent 
of  city  revenue  spent  on  schools.  In  the  report  of  this  city  com- 
parisons with  six  other  cities  of  its  class  are  made  by  departments 
and  in  per  capita  terms.  This  city  is  the  only  one  of  the  first 
group  which  considers  in  its  report  the  amount  of  money  raised 
by  taxation,  in  relation  to  the  taxable  wealth,  and  the  relation 
which  this  amount  raised  bears  to  the  tax  rate  and  taxable  prop- 
erty of  other  cities  of  its  class.  If  the  annual  reports  of  a  city's 
school  system  do  not  contain  such  comparative  and  analytical 
data  on  the  financial  ability  of  the  city  to  support  good  schools, 
how  does  the  public  know  definitely  whether  the  city  is  making 
the  best  effort  it  can  for  the  education  of  its  children?  The 
public  may  possibly  receive  information  on  this  point  from  other 
sources,  but  that  is  trusting  to  chance  what  is  an  evident  duty 
of  the  board  of  education. 

The  examination  of  the  minutes  of  a  total  of  thirty-six  regular 
and  special  meetings  of  boards  in  these  ten  cities  revealed  the  fol- 
lowing items  that  were  comparable  to  those  of  the  table: 

Enrollment  compared  with  previous  years Cities  A,  B,  C,  D,  G,  I 

Per  cent  of  enrollment  in  average  attendance A,  B,  G 

Distribution  of  classes  by  size D 

Amount  of  retardation F 

It  may  be  maintained  with  some  fairness  that  oral  reports  are 
not  recorded.     Observation  of  boards  in  session,  however,  does 


16     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

not  warrant  any  great  stress  on  this  point.  At  best  an  oral 
report  gives  neither  the  board  nor  the  chief  executive  a  record 
of  the  fact  that  adequate  data  have  been  required  on  the  one 
hand  or  presented  on  the  other.  It  may  or  may  not  satisfy  the 
public  that  the  board  is  legislating  or  that  its  executives  are  pro- 
posing legislation  based  upon  the  most  urgent  needs  of  the  chil- 
dren. 

A  further  objection  may  be  raised  that  cities  do  not  report 
the  same  phases  of  activity  each  year.  As  far  as  this  group  of 
cities  represents  the  tendency  in  reporting  the  objection  is  not 
valid.  To  verify  this  a  total  of  twenty-five  additional  reports 
from  preceding  years  were  examined,  as  follows :  Cities  A,  D,  F, 
I,  three  each;  B,  E,  G,  four  each;  H,  one.  None  were  available 
for  C  and  J.  City  I  again  alone  presents  the  per  cent  of  city 
revenue  spent  for  schools  and  in  each  case  compares  its  own 
efforts  with  that  of  other  cities  of  its  class.  Cities  A,  F,  G,  and  H 
give  nothing  to  indicate  the  financial  ability  of  the  city  to  sup- 
port schools.  City  D  gives  the  value  of  the  taxable  property  and 
the  tax  rate  for  schools  in  two  different  years.  City  E  gives  sim- 
ilar data  and  in  addition  gives  the  per  cent  that  the  school  tax 
rate  is  of  the  total  city  tax  rate.  This  occurs  in  three  of  the 
four  reports.  Nothing  more  is  to  be  found  in  any  of  these  re- 
ports that  would  indicate  the  ability  of  these  cities  to  support 
their  schools.  Nor  do  we  find  data  for  any  of  the  cities  of  this 
group  differing  materially  from  that  indicated  in  the  table  for 
each  city.  In  other  words,  these  cities  tend  to  publish  data  on 
the  same  items  each  year. 

The  following  graphic  charts  were  found  in  the  first  reports 
examined  for  each  of  these  cities :  cities  A  and  D,  two  each  on 
medical  inspection  showing  prevalence  of  physical  defects  or  dis- 
eases ;  E,  one  on  census  and  enrollment  showing  growth  by  years ; 
I,  two  on  achievement  of  pupils ;  B,  F,  G,  H,  none ;  C  and  K 
reports  not  published. 

A  second  group  of  fifteen  cities  was  selected.  These  cities 
were  chosen  by  selecting  in  order  from  the  cities  of  Table  II, 
omitting  those  already  included  in  the  first  group  of  ten,  until 
the  required  number  were  secured.  The  results  found  in  the 
reports  of  these  cities  on  items  of  the  table  are  given  in  columns 
K  to  Y.     Graphic  charts  were  found  in  these  cities  as  follows: 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  17 

city  L,  six  on  achievement  of  pupils  in  standard  tests;  M,  one 
on  progress  of  pupils  by  grades;  P,  two  for  the  repair  depart- 
ment, one  showing  how  "every  dollar  was  spent"  and  the  other 
the  relative  cost  of  each  trade  divided  into  labor  and  materials; 
S,  eight,  one  each  on  (1)  achievement  of  pupils,  (2)  persistence 
of  attendance  by  grades,  (3)  growth  of  average  number  of  days 
attendance,  (4)  comparison  of  expenditures  by  years  for  each 
major  item  in  per  cent,  (5)  per  cent  of  receipts  from  each 
source,  (6)  per  cent  of  expenditures  for  each  of  three  groups  of 
items,  (7)  growth  of  receipts  from  each  source,  (8)  growth  in  , 
expenditures  for  each  of  three  groups  of  items;  X,  thirteen,  (1) 
growth  of  city's  tax  budget,  (2)  growth  of  school  tax  appropria- 
tion, (3)  growth  in  per  cent  of  the  budget  devoted  to  educational 
administration  and  instruction,  (4)  progress  by  grades,  (5)  nor- 
mal over  and  under  age  by  grades,  (6)  over  age  by  grades  and 
years,  (7)  normal  age  by  grades  and  years,  (8)  under  age  by 
grades  and  years,  (9)  and  (10)  proportion  of  pupils  promoted, 
(11)  comparative  enrollment,  (12)  growth  of  enrollment,  (13) 
per  cent  of  failures  by  causes;  cities  K,  O,  R,  U,  V,  Y,  none; 
cities  N,  Q,  T,  W,  no  published  reports. 

From  the  data  presented  with  respect  to  the  budget  and  the 
reports  of  the  superintendent  as  found  in  the  annual  reports 
and  in  the  minutes,  it  is  evident  that  many  boards  are  not  requir- 
ing the  accurate,  detailed  statistical  data  necessary  to  pass  intel- 
ligently upon  school  policies.  Neither  are  they  requiring  the  { 
form  of  data  necessary  to  know  whether  or  not  the  chief  execu-  ' 
tive  and  his  assistants  are  securing  the  desired  results.  From 
such  data  as  we  have  found,  it  is  clear  that  not  many  boards  are 
holding  executive  officers  responsible  for  results.  They  have  yet 
to  learn  that  a  board  can  secure  results  by  (1)  delegating  pro- 
fessional and  administrative  functions  to  the  chief  executive,  (2) 
requiring  that  he  take  the  initiative  in  such  matters  as  the  budget 
and  present  to  it  such  data  that  the  board  may  know  the  kind  of 
results  he  proposes  to  secure  and  has  secured  in  the  past,  and  (3) 
reserving  for  itself  the  legislative  functions  to  be  exercised  on 
the  basis  of  adequate  objective  data. 

(3)  The  Board's  Regard  for  Economy  of  Its  Own  Time.  We 
may  measure  the  efficiency  of  the  practices  of  a  board  of  edu- 
cation to  some  extent  by  the  distribution  made  of  the  time  at  its 


18     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

disposal.  Even  though  a  board  is  accustomed  to  passing  hur- 
riedly over  routine  matters  as  happens  in  New  York  City,  the 
care  and  consideration  which  matters  receive  will  vary,  roughly 
speaking,  inversely  with  the  quantity  of  matters  which  the  board 
attempts  to  consider.  One  problem  of  a  board  of  education, 
which  is  evident  from  conditions  found  in  board  meetings,  is  to 
properly  economize  its  own  time  so  that  important  measures  of 
policy  may  receive  adequate  consideration  without  unnecessary 
sacrifice  of  private  business  on  the  part  of  members. 

(a)  Waste  of  Time  upon  Unimportant  Matters.  By  far  the 
most  time-consuming  element  found  in  meetings  is  that  of  giving 
ear  to  complaints  and  communications.  Boards  were  found  giv- 
ing attention  to  persons  ranging  from  those  who  had  purely 
private  interests  to  those  who  took  issue  with  the  board's  policy 
in  such  matters  as  its  building  program.  As  a  result  of  squan- 
dering time  upon  trivial  matters  or  upon  matters  that  ought  to 
be  disposed  of  through  other  channels,  important  business  must 
be  passed  over  hurriedly.  The  reports  of  executive  officers  are 
frequently  given  all  too  little  attention.  Committee  reports  are 
accepted  and  their  recommendations  adopted  without  adequate 
consideration  by  the  board  itself.  In  nine  of  the  fifteen  cities 
visited,  the  board  gave  audience  to  individuals,  groups,  or  repre- 
sentatives of  organizations.  None  of  these  nine  are  cities  having 
less  than  25,000  population. 

We  may  illustrate  the  type  of  matters  considered  from  the  first 
of  these  nine  cases.  In  this  city  the  board  spent  practically  the 
entire  open  session  from  8  to  9:45  p.m.  hearing  complaints 
brought  before  it  without  previous  consideration  by  executive 
officers.  The  real  work  of  this  board  is  performed  in  execu- 
tive session  between  6:30  and  8  p.m.  Approximately  thirty 
persons  appeared  with  interests  to  defend.  One  parent  desired 
his  child  to  be  transferred.  A  guardian  appeared  with  a  non- 
resident high  school  pupil  for  whom  she  sought  free  tuition.  A 
small  group  desired  a  new  school  site.  Another  small  group 
wanted  a  smoke  and  blasting  nuisance  in  the  vicinity  of  a  school 
abated.  A  principal  appeared  before  the  board  with  a  request 
for  supplies  and  equipment.  A  motion  picture  representative 
asked  the  privilege  of  photographing  some  school  children.     An- 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  19 

other  group  desired  the  consolidation  of  an  outlying  district  and 
the  vacation  of  the  present  building. 

In  the  second  of  these  nine  cities,  approximately  one  hour  of  a 
session  lasting  less  than  two  hours  was  given  over  to  discussion 
of  the  request  of  representatives  of  an  organization  who  appeared 
asking  permission  to  take  a  religious  census  of  the  school  chil- 
dren. At  the  close  of  the  hour  it  was  discovered  that  the  organ- 
ization had  no  definite  plan  of  procedure.  The  board  failed  to 
make  final  disposition  of  the  matter,  voting  to  file  the  communi- 
cation for  further  consideration. 

In  the  third  city,  one-half  hour  of  the  open  session  of  approxi- 
mately two  and  a  half  hours  was  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  the 
request  of  representatives  of  a  religious  organization  that  danc- 
ing be  prohibited  in  the  new  high  school  building. 

In  the  fourth,  committee  meetings  were  in  session  until  9:10 
P.M.  The  next  twenty  minutes  were  devoted  to  roll  call,  com- 
munications, and  the  reading  of  brief  formal  reports  of  the  super- 
visor of  buildings  and  the  attendance  officer.  At  10  p.m.  the 
board  had  finished  its  labors  of  the  open  session,  having  heard 
and  accepted  the  reports  of  four  committees. 

In  the  fifth  the  board  met  at  8:10  p.m.  At  the  end  of  twenty 
minutes  the  minutes  had  been  read  and  approved  and  the  board 
had  heard  a  representative  of  a  special  type  of  heating  fixtures. 
An  additional  hour  and  fifteen  minutes  was  spent  in  discussing 
whether  the  board  or  the  city  council  had  the  power  to  fill  a 
vacancy  on  the  board  of  education.  The  question  was  unusual, 
it  may  be  true,  but  the  board  adjourned  at  11:35  p.m.,  having 
found  it  necessary  to  postpone  any  discussion  of  what  was  per- 
haps the  most  complete  and  illuminating  of  any  superintendent's 
report  heard  in  all  the  cities  visited. 

In  the  sixth,  after  listening  for  one  hour  and  thirty  minutes  to  a 
debate  between  two  groups  of  citizens  on  a  purely  professional 
matter — a  nev/  method  of  school  room  organization  and  teach- 
ing— proposed  by  one  of  these  groups,  it  was  discovered  that  its 
advocates,  who  pretended  to  represent  a  certain  parent-teacher 
organization,  represented  but  a  small  minority  of  the  organiza- 
tion. The  matter  was  tabled.  At  10:10  p.m.  the  board  went 
to  work  at  the  real  business  before  it,  disposing  of  it  in  less  than 


20     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

one  hour.  A  matter  involving  ten  thousand  dollars  was  passed 
upon  with  only  momentary  consideration. 

In  the  seventh,  the  board  spent  one  hour  in  executive  session 
with  the  announced  intention  of  considering  bids  on  fuel.  Forty 
minutes  more  were  devoted  to  hearing  members  of  a  delegation 
urging  that  the  board  adopt  a  more  far-sighted  plan  in  the  pur- 
chase of  sites  and  the  erection  of  buildings.  These  men  were 
urging  a  matter  important  for  the  board  to  consider,  but  never- 
theless a  matter  that  could  have  been  introduced  through  the 
channel  of  the  board's  executive  officers.  As  it  was,  the  board 
listened  to  speakers  who  had  private  interests  in  the  way  of  pos- 
sible increased  property  values  as  well  as  to  those  who  urged  the 
needs  of  the  children  or  civic  pride.  The  superintendent's  report 
was  deferred  because  of  the  late  hour. 

In  the  eighth,  the  same  city  in  which  the  superintendent  made 
the  statement,  referred  to  elsewhere,  that  "there  is  absolutely 
too  much  business  to  be  done  without  committee  action,"  the 
board  spent  one-half  hour  out  of  three  hours  of  an  evening  ses- 
sion discussing  building  needs  with  a  delegation  desiring  a  new 
building.  The  chairman  of  the  committee  on  buildings  reviewed 
the  board's  building  program,  showing  that  the  board  had  adopt- 
ed an  extensive  program  in  which  the  delegation  acquiesced  when 
the  real  needs  and  plans  were  learned.  The  difficulty  was  that 
the  board  had  not  taken  the  public  into  its  confidence  to  repre- 
sent to  it  school  building  needs.  Through  an  adequate  system  of 
reporting  the  questions  asked  by  these  citizens  might  have  been 
answered  with  less  effort.  The  new  policy  proposed  by  the 
superintendent  in  his  report  at  this  meeting,  advocating  the  em- 
ployment of  sufficient  nurses  to  inaugurate  a  "follow-up"  policy 
of  medical  inspection,  was  referred  to  a  committee  without  dis- 
cussion. However,  the  board  devoted  ten  minutes  to  the  ques- 
tion of  whether  it  should  permit  the  sale  of  "peanuts,  candies 
and  tickets." 

In  the  ninth,  a  city  which  looks  to  its  executive  officers  to  carry 
on  the  actual  work  of  administration,  and  which  has  since  voted 
to  abolish  all  committees,  routine  matters  were  disposed  of  with 
dispatch  to  make  way  for  the  main  item  on  the  calendar,  the 
consideration  of  its  building  program,  to  which  thirty-five  min- 
utes were  devoted.     It  did  not,  however,  escape  giving  twelve 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  21 

minutes  to  satisfying  a  misinformed  delegation  of  citizens  that 
the  building  needs  of  their  particular  locality  were  already  receiv- 
ing due  consideration. 

Such  distribution  of  the  board's  time  as  was  made  in  eight  of 
these  nine  cities,  or  as  was  found  in  New  York,  a  tenth,  calls  for 
improvement.  In  New  York  the  board  spent  slightly  more  than 
two  hours  of  its  session  discussing  the  advisability  of  asking  the 
board  of  estimate  for  additional  funds.  This  was  an  impor- 
tant matter  involving  some  millions  of  dollars.  Discussion ,  by 
members,  however,  revealed  the  fact  that  the  board  was  consider- 
ing a  question  on  which  it  lacked  accurate  data  as  to  the  amount 
required.  One  member  asked  to  be  enlightened  as  to  how  the 
price  proposed  to  be  paid  for  a  certain  site,  included  in  the 
appropriation  asked  for,  had  been  determined.  The  informa- 
tion was  not  forthcoming.  Another  member  sought  to  discover 
the  total  of  the  proposed  expenditures.  Some  little  time  was 
consumed  before  it  could  be  answered.  Others  favored  blanket 
requests  for  money  without  specification  as  to  its  use.  It  was 
evident  that  this  large  body  was  spending  its  time  seeking  infor- 
mation from  sources  where  it  was  not  to  be  had,  with  the  result 
that  it  had  but  scant  time  to  devote  to  other  matters. 

The  devotion  of  the  board's  time  to  matters  of  importance, 
which  occurred  in  Jersey  City  and  Schenectady  and  in  the  ninth 
of  the  cities  referred  to  above,  was  a  decided  improvement  over 
that  in  the  first  eight  and  in  New  York.  In  Jersey  City  the 
matter  receiving  the  larger  portion  of  the  board's  attention  was 
a  discussion  of  the  building  program.  No  verbal  complaints  or 
communications  were  heard.  At  Schenectady  there  were  no 
communications  or  complaints  seeking  the  attention  of  the  board. 
This  board  has  nominal  committees,  but  no  committee  action 
was  recorded  in  the  proceedings  for  six  months  previous  and  no 
matters  were  referred  to  committees  for  consideration  at  this 
meeting.  A  single  topic,  the  budget,  prepared  by  the  chief  exec- 
utive, occupied  approximately  three-quarters  of  the  meeting. 
The  members  of  the  board  had  before  them  the  data  referred  to 
elsewhere  in  this  chapter.  The  president  of  the  board,  when 
asked  to  account  for  such  conditions,  explained  that  it  was  the 
policy  of  the  board  to  leave  administrative  details,  communica- 
tions or  complaints  to  the  superintendent. 


22     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Of  the  twelve  cities  thus  far  considered,  all  having  a  population 
of  25,000  or  more,  nine  may  be  said  to  have  been  spending  from 
one-half  to  more  than  two  hours  of  time  in  board  meeting  either 
on  trivial  matters  or  on  matters  on  which  the  board  did  not  have 
the  necessary  information  to  pass  intelligently.  Of  the  three 
remaining  cities  visited,  one  has  a  population  of  9000  and  the 
other  two  less  than  3000.  A  waste  of  time  in  such  small  cities 
with  little  business  to  transact,  if  it  did  occur,  would  be  of  less 
consequence.  While  in  some  cities  apologies  were  made  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  unusual  to  devote  so  much  time  to  com- 
plaints, the  fact  that  it  occurred  in  three-quarters  of  the  cities 
of  25,000  or  more  population  seems  to  be  evidence  that  no  small 
number  of  boards  do  spend  a  part  of  their  time  in  such  fashion. 

(b)  Volume  of  Business  Passed  Upon  in  Meetings.  The 
amount  of  business  which  some  boards  attempt  to  pass  upon 
may  be  judged  from  the  minutes  of  Los  Angeles.  The  board 
at  its  meeting  of  January  24,  1916,  professed  to  have  passed  upon 
the  following: 

Reports  of  Purchasing  Committee 20  items 

Law   and    Rules 13 

Teachers  and   Schools 29 

Finance    IS 

Building    62 

Communications    4 

Total    143 

In  addition  the  board  passed  upon  reports  from  four  execu- 
tive officers,  superintendent,  supervisor  of  buildings,  supervisor 
of  supplies,  and  secretary. 

Committee  items  are  by  no  means  always  simple  items.  Five 
items  in  the  report  of  the  teachers  and  schools  committee,  deal- 
ing with  elementary  schools,  involve  passing  upon  resignations, 
leaves  of  absence,  appointments,  assignments  and  transfers  of 
thirty-two  teachers.  Item  24  of  the  building  committee  report 
for  elementary  schools  includes  a  delay  for  committee  investiga- 
tion on  a  matter  of  moving  "bungalows"  from  three  sites  to 
twelve  other  sites.  The  board  in  this  city  meets  in  regular  ses- 
sion five  times  each  month.  It  meets  at  1  p.m.  on  the  first  and 
third  Thursdays  and  at  7 :30  p.m.  on  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  23 

Tuesdays  as  an  elementary  school  board.  Under  the  California 
law  it  meets  separately  as  a  high  school  board.  These  meetings 
are  held  immediately  following.  Committees  meet  immediately 
following  the  regular  board  meetings.^^  But  this  is  not  all  of  the 
time  members  of  this  board  attempt  to  contribute  to  the  welfare 
of  the  schools  even  though  it  be  a  heavy  tax  upon  their  own  pri- 
vate business.  Committees  have  taken  some  time  to  pass  judg- 
ment on  matters  they  present.  Some  committees  expect  to  spend 
more  time  still  by  making  personal  investigations  in  the  field. 
The  building  committee  recommends : 

"that  action  by  this  committee  on  the  following  recommendations  of  the 
Superintendent  be  deferred  until  the  Teachers  and  Schools  Committee 
investigates  same  and  makes  recommendation : — 

(a)  That  the  basement  of  the  San  Pedro  Street  School  be  equipped 
for  sloyd  and  the  sloyd  room  in  that  school  be  equipped  for 
cooking. 

(b)  That  the  following  released  bungalows  be  moved  to  the  school 
sites  as  indicated  below: 

From  Ann  Street  School  site : — 

1  to  Palo  Verde  School  site. 

3  to  Bridge  Street  School  site. 

2  to  62nd  Avenue  School  site. 
1  to  21st  Avenue  School  site. 

1  to  Breed  Avenue  School  site. 
1  to  Utah  Street  School    site. 
1  to  Malabar  Street  School  site. 
From  Seventh  Avenue  School  site: — 
1  to  17th  Street  School  site. 

1  to  Magnolia  Avenue  School  site. 
From  Virgil  Avenue  School  site : — 

3  to  Logan  Street  School  site. 

2  to  Echo  Park  Avenue  School  site. 
1  to  Cambria  Street  School  site." 

"We  recommend  that  action  on  the  following  matters  be  deferred  one 
week  to  enable  the  Committee  to  personally  investigate  same: 

(a)  Recommendation  of  the  Superintendent  relative  to  additional 
school  facilities  at  Torrance. 

(b)  Repairing  of  the  cottage  on  the  Staunton  Avenue  School  site  at 
an  approximate  cost  of  $217.50. 

(c)  Request  from  .  .  .  Ass't.  Superintendent  of  Schools  that  addi- 
tional land  be  purchased  for  use  of  the  Trinity  Street  School."  " 

««  Report,  1914. 

"  Italics  used  here  and  elsewhere  in  the  study  are  the  author's. 


24     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Los  Angeles  is  by  no  means  the  only  city  in  which  board  mem- 
bers spend  considerable  time  in  the  field  supervising  administra- 
tive matters.  This  is  true  especially  for  members  of  the  building 
committee  in  a  number  of  the  cities  visited.  Some  board  mem- 
bers were  observed  to  be  doing  so  at  no  small  sacrifice  on  their 
part.  Their  public  spirit  and  interest  in  seeing  that  buildings 
are  well  built  is  to  be  commended,  but  it  would  probably  be  wise 
economy  in  many  instances  to  engage  experts  of  known  ability 
in  whom  the  board  can  place  confidence  that  buildings  will  be 
constructed  in  accord  with  the  plans  and  specifications.  With 
the  time  spent  in  examining  buildings,  added  to  that  devoted  to 
meetings,  it  is  certain  that  some  boards  give  liberally  of  their 
time  to  school  affairs.  With  a  large  amount  of  business  to  be 
transacted  and  with  field  work  in  addition  it  is  not  surprising 
that  some  boards  resolve  themselves  into  a  number  of  separate 
boards  in  the  form  of  committees. 

We  may  have  presented  an  extreme  case  in  Los  Angeles. 
One  needs  but  to  examine  the  minutes  or  calendars  of  such  cities 
as  Chicago,  New  York,  Milwaukee,  or  Kansas  City  to  see  the 
mass  of  material  that  the  board  in  these  cities  attempts  to  cover. 
Is  it  surprising  that  pleas  are  made  for  committees  on  the  ground 
that  the  board  itself  cannot  attend  to  all  of  the  business  coming 
before  it?  Such  a  plea,  however,  is  an  admission  that  the  board 
itself  does  not  expect  to  pass  intelligently  on  many  matters. 
When  we  add  to  the  facts  (1)  that  boards  attempt  to  pass  upon 
too  much  business  to  give  important  matters  thorough  considera- 
tion, and  (2)  that  they  accept  committee  judgments  for  their 
own;  the  further  facts,  (3)  that  they  fail  in  many  instances  to 
require  adequate  data,  and  (4)  that  they  fail  to  make  an  eco- 
nomical distribution  of  the  time  at  their  disposal,  the  need  of 
reform  in  board  practices  is  indicated. 

Our  constructive  suggestion  toward  the  solution  of  the  diffi- 
culties confronting  lay  boards  of  education  is  that  they  adopt  a 
businesslike  policy  toward  city  school  administration.  This  sug- 
gestion is  based  upon  administrative  principles  employed  in  the 
field  of  business.  It  finds  a  further  basis  in  the  judgments  of 
several  hundred  competent  judges  as  to  what  are  the  proper 
duties  of  a  board  of  education.  It  is  quite  probable  that  that 
board  will  first  reach  a  solution  of  these  difficulties  which  (1) 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  25 

recognizes  that  educational  leadership  is  a  professional  under- 
taking; (2)  chooses  capable  leaders;  (3)  places  upon  them  the 
responsibility  for  administrative  success  and  requires  them  to 
dispose  of  all  save  matters  of  vital  importance;  (4)  reserves  its 
own  time  to  a  consideration  of  matters  of  policy  as  presented  in 
the  reports  and  recommendations  of  its  chief  executive  and  his 
assistants,  and  (5)  acts  only  on  the  basis  of  adequate  statistical 
data  presented  by  its  executives  showing  the  achievements  of  the 
past  and  those  proposed  for  the  future. 

b.  The  Duties  a  Lay  Board  of  Education  Should  Perform 

( 1 )  A  List  of  Board  Duties.  The  writer,  with  the  assistance 
of  several  hundred  others,  has  endeavored  to  bring  together  in 
constructive  form  the  duties  which  most  of  all  should  command 
the  attention  of  a  board  of  education.  The  list  of  duties  on 
the  page  following  is  the  result  of  a  process  of  selection.  Each 
member  of  a  class  of  eighty  graduate  students  in  educational 
administration  was  asked  to  list  the  three  duties  of  a  board  of 
education  which  he  or  she  considered  most  important.  From 
the  returns  received,  and  from  the  recommendations  of  various 
school  surveys,  which  possibly  represent  the  best  single  judgments, 
a  preliminary  list  was  prepared.  After  discussion  of  this  list  by 
students  of  educational  administration  had  brought  out  its  weak-  '-^ * 
nesses  as  well  as  its  strong  points,  members  of  the  seminar  in 
educational  administration  at  Teachers  College  were  each  asked 
to  list  the  ten  most  important  duties  of  a  board  of  education. 
From  the  lists  submitted  by  these  individuals  and  the  prelim- 
inary list,  a  second  list  was  prepared.  Along  with  the  duties 
considered  important  were  placed  a  few  which  were  considered 
of  minor  importance  or  which  the  board  possibly  should  not  per- 
form. These  unimportant  duties  were  added  in  order  to  facili- 
tate a  final  approximation  to  a  scale  at  one  extreme  of  which 
should  be  placed  those  duties  considered  by  several  hundred  com- 
petent judges  as  of  first  importance  and  at  the  other  end  those 
considered  least  worthy  of  a  board's  attention.  After  some  addi- 
tional criticisms  of  the  wording  of  the  several  duties,  the  list  was 
prepared  with  the  accompanying  directions.  The  list  was  sub- 
mitted to  531  judges.  The  judges,  while  made  up  mostly  of 
students  of  educational  administration,  superintendents,  and  prin- 


26     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

cipals,  included  school  board  members  and  experienced  business 
men.  The  judges  were  instructed  to  rank  the  duties  in  what  each 
considered  the  order  of  importance.  Realizing  the  impossibility 
of  drawing  sharp  distinctions  between  all  of  the  nineteen  duties, 
the  suggestion  was  given  that  duties  near  either  extreme  be  ranked 
first.  Instructions  were  also  given  to  mark  with  an  X  those 
which  boards  should  not  perform. 

Rank  the  following  duties  performed  by  city  boards  of  education  in 
order  of  their  importance. 

Note:  Read  the  entire  list  before  you  begin.  Give  rank  No.  1  to  the 
one  you  consider  most  important  and  No.  19  to  the  least  important.  You 
may  find  it  easier  to  rank  those  that  fall  near  the  upper  or  lower  end 
before  attempting  to  locate  those  that  will  fall  near  the  middle.  Mark 
also  with  an  X  those  you  think  Boards  should  not  perform,  e.g.,  X-19. 

Rank 

A.  Act  as  a  court  of  final  appeal  for  teachers,  supervisors  and  patrons 
in  cases  which  the  superintendent  has  not  been  able  to  dispose  of,  or 
which  may  be  appealed  from  his  decision. 

B.  Adopt,  upon  consultation  with  the  chief  executive,  a  set  of  by-laws 
or  rules  for  the  government  of  the  school  system,  i.e.,  designate 
authority  of  executive  and  administrative  officers,  and  duties  to  be 
performed  by  the  board  or  its  committees. 

C.  Advise  with  the  chief  executive,  affording  a  group  judgment,  on  his 
recommendations  for  extensions  or  readjustments  of  the  scope  of 
educational  activities. 

D.  Appoint — upon  nomination  and  recommendation  of  the  chief  execu- 
tive— teachers,  principals,  and  supervisors. 

E.  Approve  text-books  selected  by  the  chief  executive  and  approve 
courses  of  study  recommended  by  him. 

F.  Approve  the  list  of  bills  for  expenditure  previously  authorized  and 
approved  by  executive  officers. 

G.  Consider  recommendations  of  executive  officers  on  legal  matters, 
decide  steps  to  be  taken,  e.g.,  suits  to  quiet  title,  condemnation. 

H.  Require  and  consider  report  of  the  business  transacted  or  pending 
and  of  the  financial  status  of  the  system. 

I.  Debate  and  pass  upon  recommendations  of  chief  executive  for  addi- 
tional capital  outlays — buildings,  sites,  improvements,  and  deter- 
mine the  means  of  financing  such  outlays,  e.g.,  bonds,  loans. 

J.     Determine,  after  consultation  and  discussion  with  the  chief  execu- 
tive, the  schedule  of  salaries. 
K.    Require    and    discuss    report    of    the    chief    executive    concerning 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  27 

progress  of  the  schools — in  terms  of  achievements  of  pupils,  teach- 
ers, supervisors. 

L.  Hear  communications,  written  or  oral,  from  citizens  or  organiza- 
tions on  matters  of  administration  or  policy. 

M.  Pass  upon  architect's  plans,  approved  by  the  chief  executive  and 
his  assistants,  for  buildings  that  have  been  authorized. 

N.  Pass  upon  the  annual  budget  for  maintenance  prepared  by  the  chief 
executive  and  his  assistants  ("budget"  including  sources  -and 
amount  of  revenue  available  as  well  as  expenditures). 

O.  Represent  needs  of  the  schools  before  city  authorities  or  the  legis- 
lature. 

P.  Represent  needs  of  the  schools  before  the  public,  e.g.,  press,  plat- 
form. 

Q.  Select  the  chief  executive  officer  and  support  him  in  the  discharge  of 
his  duties. 

R.  Serve  as  laymen  ready  (even  after  retiring  from  the  board)  to 
champion  school  needs  and  to  further  public  support  of  the  schools, 
e.g.,  as  others  champion  good  streets,  parks. 

S.  Visit  the  schools,  observe  or  investigate  the  efficiency  of  instruc- 
tion. 

Indicate  any  important  duties  that  you  think  have  been  omitted  from 
the    list .TTTT 

(2)  The  Result  of  a  Series  of  Judgments.  Table  V  gives  the 
distribution  of  ranks  assigned  to  each  of  the  nineteen  duties  by 
the  531  judges  ^*  from  whom  complete  rankings  were  received. 
The  most  striking  feature  of  the  table  is,  that  to  select  the  chief 
executive  and  support  him  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties  is  un- 
questionably regarded  by  these  judges  as  the  most  important  sin- 
gle duty  which  a  board  of  education  has  to  perform.  Approxi- 
mately 70  per  cent  of  all  the  judges  rank  it  number  one.  The 
duties  which  are  placed  next  in  importance  are  those  which  have 
to  do  with  passing  upon  the  annual  budget,  the  recommendations 
of  the  chief  executive   for  additional  capital  outlays,  advising 

88  The  difference  in  the  totals  for  each  of  the  nineteen  ranks  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  some  of  the  judges  regarded  certain  of  the  duties  as  of  equal 
importance.  Half  ranks  resulting  from  such  failure  to  distribute  have 
been  included  with  the  next  higher  rank.  A  more  accurate  method  would 
have  been  to  distribute  these  half  ranks  equally  among  the  next  higher  and 
next  lower  ranks.  However,  when  this  was  done  it  was  found  that  in  no 
case  was  the  relative  position  of  the  any  of  the  nineteen  duties  changed, 
nor  was  the  change  in  any  case  as  much  as  .05  from  the  value  given  in 
Table  VI. 


28     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

with  him  on  questions  of  extending  or  readjusting  the  scope  of 
educational  activities,  and  appointing  teachers,  principals  and 
supervisors  when  nominated  by  the  chief  executive.  The  duties 
which  are  regarded  as  least  worthy  of  a  board's  attention  are,  in 
order,  those  which  involve  visiting  the  schools  and  attempting 
to  pass  upon  the  quality  of  instruction,  hearing  communications, 
and  acting  as  a  court  of  appeal  on  complaints  from  teachers, 
supervisors  and  patrons.  These  same  three  are  most  frequently 
regarded  as  duties  which  a  board  of  education  should  not  per- 
form. The  relative  importance  of  each  duty  as  determined  by 
the  75  percentile  method  ^^  is  shown  in  Table  VI.  The  same 
facts  are  represented  graphically  upon  a  linear  scale  in  Fig.  I, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  representing  a  tentative  scale  of  the 
nineteen  duties. 


TABLE  V 
Distribution  of  Ranks  Assigned  Each  Duty 


Rank 

Duty 
A 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

Total 

3 

13 

12 

9 

13 

13 

21 

20 

27 

23 

29 

34 

31 

23 

43 

45 

64 

66 

42 

531 

B 

28 

73 

38 

35 

25 

27 

22 

27 

19 

26 

23 

28 

23 

23 

24 

30 

16 

34 

10 

531 

C 

28 

63 

80 

53 

54 

32 

42 

29 

34 

16 

22 

20 

16 

12 

8 

10 

4 

4 

4 

531 

D 

14 

97 

77 

64 

42 

32 

21 

25 

15 

24 

26 

19 

14 

17 

15 

13 

4 

8 

4 

531 

E 

1 

5 

25 

28 

28 

31 

20 

29 

35 

29 

31 

23 

36 

31 

40 

33 

42 

40 

24 

531 

F 

0 

5 

15 

16 

31 

20 

34 

23 

44 

50 

35 

33 

45 

40 

26 

44 

39 

26 

5 

531 

G 

0 

1 

3 

10 

17 

19 

16 

30 

30 

34 

47 

50 

56 

58 

49 

38 

36 

28 

9 

531 

H 

7 

11 

22 

26 

31 

36 

31 

45 

39 

41 

47 

50 

34 

34 

29 

19 

17 

12 

0 

531 

I 

21 

38 

63 

55 

70 

50 

46 

45 

37 

22 

19 

19 

15 

14 

7 

4 

2 

3 

1 

531 

k 

2 

9 

25 

41 

31 

57 

49 

41 

61 

40 

42 

34 

34 

17 

12 

12 

13 

5 

6 

531 

8 

21 

29 

45 

47 

38 

40 

32 

25 

34 

36 

22 

29 

25 

29 

24 

24 

19 

4 

531 

L 

0 

2 

5 

4 

6 

10 

13 

8 

14 

17 

18 

34 

38 

39 

56 

56 

72 

9i 

48 

531 

M 

2 

5 

11 

25 

13 

26 

25 

37 

46 

40 

36 

44 

49 

43 

37 

28 

23 

% 

12 

531 

N 

20 

90 

51 

56 

65 

39 

37 

32 

34 

22 

14 

19 

22 

9 

5 

6 

5 

J\ 

L  2 

531 

O 

7 

24 

25 

23 

21 

29 

23 

36 

35 

27 

34 

31 

37 

41 

49 

41 

29 

ir 

\    5 

531 

P 

7 

10 

19 

19 

19 

29 

37 

23 

25 

35 

31 

28 

24 

40 

39 

49 

46 

35. 

Yt 

531 

g 

376 

39 

29 

17 

14 

7 

11 

9 

4 

3 

1 

4 

2 

3 

6 

3 

2 

0 

531 

6 

22 

13 

11 

18 

16 

25 

26 

18 

24 

22 

33 

22 

38 

42 

43 

61 

58 

33 

531 

s 

1 

4 

5 

7 

7 

4 

6 

11 

7 

10 

11 

5 

16 

8 

15 

30 

48 

85 

251 

531 

531 

532 

547 

544 

552 

515 

519 

528 

549 

517 

524 

530 

543 

515 

531 

528 

547 

560 

477 

10089 

39  The  75  percentile  is  that  point  above  which  75  per  cent  of  the  judges 
would  place  a  given  duty  and  below  which  the  remaining  25  per  cent  would 
place  the  same  duty,  e.g.,  75  per  cent  of  the  judges  would  place  duty  Q  at 
2.57  or  higher  and  25  per  cent  would  assign  it  a  lower  rank. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties 


29 


m 


« 


a 


PL, 


U 


>< 

y-i 

o 

00 

n 

<— 1 

§ 

o 

g 

JvJ 

rN; 

ro 

> 

H 

--H 

H 

I? 

o 

Id 

Q 

1— » 

>— 1 

m 

tn 

< 

< 
>< 

Q 

I— 1 

CO 

K 

ffi 

ro 

o 

< 

W 

C^ 

o 

IT) 

O 

8 

?s 

< 

fc 

lO 

H 

PS 

o 

CLl 

o\ 

s 

1— I 

w 

^ 

p: 

f^ 

•< 

Q 

o 

« 


u 


CQ 


A^ 


^ 


O 


.  OS 


»  oo 


-  i2 


.   hO 


^i— 

>« 

H 

C 

£2 

Q 

S 

o 

< 

CM 

M 

(K 

O 

^_ 

M 

■~~ 

O 

-H              Z 

< 

o 

Fig. 

PORT 

s 

OS 

•"• 

w 

>; 

oo 

< 

^ 

U 

P^ 

h* 

u 

M 

H 

>o 

-  fcO 


-  CO 


-  csi 


30     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

The  different  duties  will  be  seen  to  fall  within  more  or  less 
distinct  groups.  Duties  N,  I,  C,  D,  and  J  form  a  group  which 
are  next  in  importance  to  the  selection  of  the  chief  executive. 
A  middle  group  includes  H,  K,  B,  M,  O,  F,  G,  E,  and  P,  while 
the  duties  which  stand  out  as  being  of  least  importance  are  R,  A, 
L,  and  S.  Nine  are  regarded  as  of  more  importance  than  M  and 
nine  as  of  less  importance.  We  may,  then,  as  a  result  of  the  531 
judgments,  rearrange  the  list  of  duties  performed  by  a  board  of 
education  in  the  order  of  importance  as  follows : 

1.  Select  the  chief  executive  officer  and  support  him  in  the  discharge  of 
his  duties. 

2.  Pass  upon  the  annual  budget  for  maintenance  prepared  by  the  chief 
executive  and  his  assistants  ("budget  including  sources  and  amount 
of  revenue  available  as  well  as  expenditures"). 

3.  Debate  and  pass  upon  recommendations  of  chief  executive  for  addi- 
tional capital  outlays — ^buildings,  sites,  improvements,  and  determine 
the  means  of  financing  such  outlays,  e.g.,  bonds,  loans. 

4.  Advise  with  the  chief  executive,  affording  a  group  judgment,  on  his 
recommendations  for  extensions  or  readjustments  of  the  scope  of 
educational  activities. 

5.  Appoint — upon  nomination  and  recommendation  of  the  chief  execu- 
tive— teachers,  principals,  and  supervisors. 

6.  Determine,  after  consultation  and  discussion  with  the  chief  execu- 
tive, the  schedule  of  salaries. 

7.  Require  and  consider  report  of  the  business  transacted  or  pending 
and  of  the  financial  status  of  the  system. 

8.  Require  and  discuss  report  of  the  chief  executive  concerning  progress 
of  the  schools — in  terms  of  achievements  of  pupils,  teachers,  super- 
visors. 

9.  Adopt,  upon  consultation  with  the  chief  executive,  a  set  of  by-laws 
or  rules  for  the  government  of  the  school  system,  i.e.,  designate 
authority  of  executive  and  administrative  officers,  and  duties  to  be 
performed  by  the  board  or  its  committees. 

10.  Pass  upon  architect's  plans,  approved  by  the  chief  executive  and  his 
assistants,  for  buildings  that  have  been  authorized. 

11.  Represent  needs  of  the  schools  before  city  authorities  or  the  legis- 
lature. 

12.  Approve  the  list  of  bills  for  expenditure  previously  authorized  and 
approved  by  executive  officers. 

13.  Consider  recommendations  of  executive  officers  on  legal  matters, 
decide  steps  to  be  taken,  e.g.,  suits  to  quiet  title,  condemnation. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  31 

14.  Approve  text-books  selected  by  the  chief  executive  and  approve 
courses  of  study  recommended  by  him. 

15.  Represent  needs  of  the  schools  before  the  public,  e.g.,  press,  plat- 
form. 

16.  Serve  as  laymen,  ready  (even  after  retiring  from  the  board)  to 
champion  school  needs  and  to  further  public  support  of  the  schools, 
e.g.,  as  others  champion  good  streets,  parks. 

17.  Act  as  a  court  of  final  appeal  for  teachers,  supervisors  and  patrons 
in  cases  which  the  superintendent  has  not  been  able  to  dispose  of,  or 
which  may  be  appealed  from  his  decision. 

18.  Hear  communications,  written  or  oral,  from  citizens  or  organizations 
on  matters  of  administration  or  policy. 

19.  Visit  the  schools,  observe  or  investigate  the  efficiency  of  instruc- 
tion.   


When  the  judgments  of  business  men  and  board  members  are 
considered  separately,  though  insufficient  in  number  to  warrant 
positive  conclusions,  we  find  little  change  from  the  order  above 
in  the  relative  rank  of  the  different  duties.  The  selection  of  the 
superintendent  is  placed  first.  Advising  with  the  chief  executive 
on  his  recommendations  for  extension  of  educational  activities  is 
placed  second,  passing  upon  recommendations  for  capital  outlays 
third,  and  passing  upon  the  budget  fourth.  Adopting  a  set  of 
by-laws  to  designate  the  authority  of  executive  officers  is  raised 
to  fifth  rank.  The  duties  regarded  as  least  worthy  of  a  board's 
attention  are:  to  serve  as  laymen  ready  to  further  public  sup- 
port of  the  schools;  to  visit  the  schools  and  investigate  the 
efficiency  of  instruction ;  and  to  hear  communications. 

The  suggestions  received  as  to  important  duties  which  may  have 
been  omitted  from  the  list  were  not  sufficiently  agreed,  to  in  any 
material  way  a-ffect  the  results.  The  one  which  was  perhaps 
most  emphatically  maintained  is  that  of  representing  the  needs 
of  the  community.  This  duty  is  one  which  the  careful  observer 
will  see  has  been  analyzed  into  several  specific  duties  in  our  list. 
The  one  most  frequently  suggested  was  that  of  becoming  familiar 
with  school  development  elsewhere. 


32     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

4.  The  Work  of  Board  Committees 

a.  Previous  Studies 

As  a  preliminary  to  presenting  the  facts  found  with  reference 
to  committees  of  the  board  we  may  survey  briefly  the  results 
found  and  the  conclusions  reached  by  other  investigators  in  this 
field. 

Bard*"  found  996  committees  in  112  city  school  districts,  an 
average  of  nearly  nine  to  each  district.  The  committee  occurring 
most  frequently  was  that  of  finance  with  73  while  25  others  pro- 
vided a  committee  whose  duties  had  to  do  with  finance.  The 
next  committee  in  order  of  frequency  was  that  of  supplies  with 
33.  Of  the  committees  found,  255  appeared  only  once  each  and 
54  twice. 

"With  only  a  few  exceptions,  boards  of  education  provide  in  their  by- 
laws for  a  number  of  standing  committees,  to  which  are  intrusted  prac- 
tically all  the  more  important  duties  imposed  upon  such  bodies  by  law.  .  .  . 
They  constitute  a  convenient  means  by  which  the  board  of  education  may 
discharge  the  functions  which  it  is  required  by  law  to  discharge."  He  con- 
cludes that:  "This  practice,  if  employed  with  judgment  and  discretion  has 
much  merit,  particularly  in  the  case  of  large  boards  with  executive  func- 
tions to  perform." 

Dr.  Bard,  however,  does  not  submit  any  evidence  tending  to 
prove  the  merit  which  he  claims  for  committee  action.  Whether 
or  not  committees  should  be  allowed  to  perform  executive  func- 
tions is  open  to  serious  question.  His  statement  that  "a.  study 
of  these  committees,  however,  may  show  either  a  great  lack  of 
agreement  in  boards'  conceptions  of  what  really  are  the  things  of 
most  vital  importance  in  their  educational  systems  or  a  great 
diversity  of  interests  varying  in  importance  with  the  different 
districts,"  here  couched  in  terms  of  a  possibility,  will  be  seen  from 
the  evidence  found  in  this  study  to  be  borne  out  by  the  facts. 

Professor  Moore  in  his  report  on  the  New  York  City  Board 
and  its  committees "  has  this  to  say  with  reference  to  the 
committee  system  in  one  city  having  a  large  board  of 
education : 

^oThe  City  School  District,  pp.  63-4. 

*^  How  New  York  Administers  its  Schools,  1913,  p.  S4f. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  33 

"So  efficient  are  these  small,  compact  groups  when  they  meet  to  dispose 
of  the  business  which  is  brought  to  them  that  I  am  confident  any  one  of 
its  major  committees  would  make  a  more  effective  board  of  education  than 
the  board  itself.  The  internal  weakness  of  the  present  system  is  that  the 
committees  do  the  work  and  that  there  is  nothing  of  real  moment  left  for 
the  board  to  do,  but  to  meet  and  formally  ratify  what  the  committees  have 
done.  ..."  "The  committee  system  of  the  board  leads  to  a  confusion  of 
authority  and  action  in  determining  policies  and  action  for  the  control  of 
the  schools.  The  committees  do  not  form  an  interlocking  system,  but  a 
series  of  more  or  less  independent  sovereignties ;  each  has  a  business  of 
its  own,  and  is  naturally  exceedingly  jealous  of  its  own  prerogatives. 
They  communicate  with  each  other  diplomatically,  like  pride  protecting, 
independent  states.  Each  committee  conducts  the  work  of  its  own  execu- 
tive bureau  to  which  it  functions  as  a  board  of  directors,  and  whose  busi- 
ness must  wait  upon  the  meeting  of  the  committee  for  its  disposal.  .  .  . 
Much  delay  in  conducting  the  business  of  the  board  is  caused  by  this  reten- 
tion of  executive  duties  by  the  board  members  and  the  calendars  of  the 
committees  are  crowded  with  a  mass  of  routine  details  which  do  not  in 
their  nature  call  for  board  action  for  their  disposal.  A  resident  director 
or  general  manager  .  .  .  could  take  care  of  much  of  this  detail,  and  his 
presence  would  make  greatly  for  the  strengthening  and  unifying  of  the 
work  of  the  different  bureaus,  and  for  the  direct  and  speedy  transaction 
of  business  of  the  school  department.  ...  In  order  that  the  board  may 
function  as  a  whole,  the  number  of  such  committees  must  be  as  few  as 
possible  and  their  authority  must  be  limited  to  the  initiation  of  action  by 
means  of  recommendations  and  suggestions  and  not  be  allowed  to  extend 
to  the  final  disposal  of  business,  except  where  specific  matters  are,  from 
time  to  time,  referred  to  them  for  decision  by  the  board  as  a  whole.  .  .  . 
The  great  number  of  such  committees  at  present  is  due,  not  to  the  inher- 
ent necessities  of  the  work  but  to  the  great  number  of  board  members 
for  whom  committee  appointment  must  be  found.  .  .  .  When  they  are 
once  created  work  must  be  found  for  the  committees,  and  functions  which 
should  be  intrusted  to  an  executive  staff  are  retained  by  board  mem- 
bers. .  ,  .  The  most  serious  fault  of  the  committee  system  is  that  it  pre- 
vents the  board  from  transacting  its  business  as  a  board,  upon  considera- 
tion of  it  by  the  whole  board ;  that  it  substitutes  for  the  initiative  of  all  the 
members  the  initiative  of  a  part  of  them  and  trusts  to  a  minority  of  the 
body  the  first  hand  determination  of  its  policies  and  decisions.  ..." 

Deffenbaugh,  in  his  investigation  *^  of  approximately  1300 
cities,  of  from  2500  to  30,000  population,  made  six  years  later 
than  Bard's,  found  a  much  smaller  range  of  interests  demanding 
the  attention  of  a  standing  committee.     He  lists  in  all  forty-eight 

*'  School  Administration  in  the  Smaller  Cities,  pp.  20-22. 


34     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

kinds  of  committees.     His  statements  of  the  findings  and  his 
conclusions  are  as  follows : 

"Though  school  boards  in  most  of  the  smaller  cities  have  been  reduced 
in  size  to  5,  6,  or  7  members,  some  of  them  still  cling  to  the  custom  of 
having  many  standing  committees.  Sometimes  there  are  as  many  commit- 
tees as  there  are  board  members,  each  member  holding  a  chairmanship. 
What  these  committees  find  to  do  is  a  question  difficult  to  answer,  either 
there  is  nothing  for  some  of  them  to  do  or  they  take  upon  themselves 
duties  that  do  not  belong  to  them  but  to  paid  experts.  .  .  .  Clearly  the 
functions  of  many  of  these  committees,  such  as  those  on  promotion,  exam- 
inations, penmanship,  course  of  study  and  truancy,  must  duplicate  the 
functions  of  expert  employees  of  the  school  board.  .  .  .  How  many  and 
what  committees  a  board  should  have  may  depend  to  a  certain  extent 
upon  local  conditions  and  upon  the  size  of  the  board,  "but  in  general  a 
board  composed  of  7  or  fewer  members  needs  no  standing  committees. 
If  the  superintendent  is  given  the  power  due  in  preparation  of  the  school 
budget,  in  the  selection  of  teachers,  and  in  the  general  professional  and 
business  administration  of  the  schools,  he  seldom  needs  the  assistance  of 
a  committee.  A  board  of  5,  6,  or  7  members  can  discuss  and  pass  upon 
the  recommendations  of  the  superintendent  as  well  as  a  committee  of 
three.  When  the  work  is  done  by  committees,  there  is  usually  but  little 
discussion  by  the  entire  board;  one  part  of  the  board  may  be  almost 
entirely  ignorant  of  what  another  part  is  doing.  ...  If  there  are  any  com- 
mittees, their  attention  should  be  directed  chiefly  to  the  business  affairs 
of  the  board.  In  a  board  of  from  five  to  nine  members  two  committees 
could  easily  look  after  the  business  of  the  board — a  committee  on  finance 
and  accounts  and  one  on  buildings  and  grounds.  ..." 

Professor  Cubberley,  after  participating  in  the  surveys  of  Port- 
land, Butte,  Salt  Lake,  and  Oakland,  has  this  to  say  of  com- 
mittees :  *' 

"The  most  common  means  by  which  mismanagement  and  interference 
with  technical  and  professional  functions  of  the  experts  of  the  school  de- 
partment comes  is  through  the  attempt  of  such  boards  to  manage  the 
schools  by  means  of  a  large  number  of  standing  committees.  Committees 
commonly  exist,  such  as  those  on  courses  of  study,  text-books,  instruc- 
tion, and  promotion  and  grading,  which  simply  cannot  exercise  intelli- 
gently any  of  the  functions  usually  assigned  to  such  bodies.  The  work 
attempted  by  such  committees  involves  a  professional  knowledge  and 
judgment  which  no  city  board  of  education,  either  as  a  body  or  through 
a  committee,  ought  ever  try  to  assume." 

*3  Public  School  Administration,  p.  112f. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  35 

Professor  Cubberley  cites  ten  cases  to  illustrate  what  he  styles 
"the  over-activity  of  committees." 

"All  of  these  cases  of  over-activity  on  the  part  of  board  members  and 
board  committees  arise  from  a  confusion  as  to  what  the  members  were 
elected  to  do.  In  the  exercise  of  its  legislative  functions  the  board  will 
need  few,  if  any,  standing  committees.  If  the  board  is  small,  say  five  or 
seven,  action  can  be  taken  better  as  a  whole,  all  committees  being  j)urely 
temporary.  In  any  case,  three  committees  will  be  sufficient  for  even  a 
large  board,  namely  a  committee  on  educational  affairs,  a  committee  on 
business  affairs,  and  a  committee  on  buildings  and  finance." 

Ballou,  following  an  investigation  in  seventy-two  cities,  con- 
cludes as  follows :  ** 

"The  few  members  of  a  standing  committee  play  altogether  too  large  a 
part  in  the  decisions  of  the  board,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  (1)  more  than 
eighty  per  cent  of  the  committees  are  minority  committees,  and  (2)  the 
reports  of  committees  whether  large  or  small,  through  necessity,  are  sel- 
dom discussed  by  the  whole  board.  The  committee  organization  permits 
the  exercise  of  pernicious  influences,  because  (1)  of  the  prevailing  method 
of  appointment  of  members  by  the  president  of  the  board,  because  (2) 
of  its  closed  meetings,  and  because  (3)  it  is  easier  to  deal  unscrupulously 
with  a  small  committee  than  it  is  with  a  whole  board. 

The  committee  system  violates  four  principles  of  effective  administra- 
tion, as  follows:  (1)  The  duties  of  each  committee  cannot  be  clearly  de- 
fined, because  the  functions  of  committees  overlap,  due  to  the  fact  that 
committees  are  usually  organized  according  to  no  known  principle  of  or- 
ganization. (2)  This  makes  it  impossible  to  fix  the  responsibility  of  each 
committee,  because  no  one  knows  just  what  its  duties  are.  (3)  The  ab- 
sence of  any  well-defined  responsibilities  makes  it  impossible  to  hold  the 
committee  responsible  for  its  acts.  (4)  The  committee  system  tends  to 
confuse  lay  control  with  professional  and  executive  management,  because 
the  prevailing  practice  is  to  refer  the  discharge  of  executive  functions  to 
committees  of  the  board  rather  than  to  the  board's  professional  execu- 
tives. For  these  reasons  the  practice  of  boards  of  education  of  organizing 
into  standing  committees  for  the  transaction  of  their  business  must  be 
condemned." 

The  conclusions  of  these  investigators  may  be  summarized 
somewhat  as  follows : 

1.  There  is  no  agreement  among  boards  as  to  the  number  or 
the  kind  of  committees. — Bard,  DefTenbaugh. 

2.  A  large  number  of  committees  is  to  be  attributed  rather  to 

**  The  Appointment  of-  Teachers  in  Cities,  pp.  121-122. 


36     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

the  size  of  the  board  than  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done, 
merely  as  a  way  out  of  a  dilemma. — Ballou,  Bard,  Deffen- 
baugh,  Moore — or  to  provide  members  with  chairmanships. 
— Deffenbaugh. 

3.  Committees  tend  to  perform  executive  functions. — Ballou, 
Bard,  Cubberley,  Deffenbaugh,  Moore. 

4.  The  committee  system  fosters  a  divided  rather  than  a 
centralized  or  coordinated  form  of  organization. — Moore. 

5.  Committee  policy  tends  to  become  board  policy,  the  board 
as  a  whole  being  ignorant  of  the  real  work  of  each  com- 
mittee.— Ballou,  Moore,  Defifenbaugh. 

6.  The  functions  of  committees  overlap. — Ballou,  Moore. 

7.  Committees  form  a  means  of  unnecessary  delay  and  post- 
ponement of  action. — Cubberley,  Deffenbaugh. 

8.  Committees  permit  of  pernicious  influence. — Ballou. 

9.  A  board  of  proper  size  needs  only  a  few  if  any  standing 
committees, — Cubberley,  Deffenbaugh. 

The  limited  amount  of  time  available  for  this  study  made  it  in- 
advisable to  duplicate  the  efforts  of  these  investigators  on  certain 
phases  of  committee  action.  For  such  matters  as  the  size  and 
kind  of  committees  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  studies  of  Ballou, 
Bard,  and  Deffenbaugh.  With  reference  to  the  conclusions 
reached  by  these  investigators  such  evidence  as  we  have  found  in 
support  or  contradiction  will  be  presented.  The  first  of  these  is 
supported  by  the  evidence  found  in  the  present  study.  The  near- 
est approach  we  have  to  agreement  on  the  number  of  committees 
is  that  53  per  cent  of  our  boards  agree  that  there  should  be  from 
4  to  6  committees.  The  number  occurring  most  frequently  is  5, 
which  occurs  in  twenty  cases. 

h.  The  Relation  of  Committees  to  the  Size  of  the  Board 

The  repeated  reference  by  other  investigators  to  the  relation 
of  the  size  of  boards  of  education  to  the  number  of  committees 
they  provide,  independent  of  any  statistical  analysis  of  the  actual 
situation  seemed  to  call  for  further  investigation.  Accordingly 
one  of  the  first  steps  with  reference  to  the  committee  problem  was 
to  find  what  relation  exists  between  size  of  board  and  frequency 
of  committees.  From  Table  I  we  find  that  the  number  of  com- 
mittees for  the  one  hundred  cities  ranges  fjom  none  at  all  in  ten 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  37 

cities  to  nineteen  in  Providence.  The  median  number  is  six  and 
the  average  is  six.  To  find  what  relation  exists  between  the  size 
of  boards  and  the  number  of  committees,  a  correlation  by  the 
Spearman  method  of  ranking  was  made  between  these  two  fac- 
tors. To  discover  whether  or  not  the  number  of  committees  is 
due  as  much  to  the  size  of  city  represented  as  to  the  size  of  the 
board,  it  was  necessary  to  correlate  also  size  of  city  and  number  of 
standing  committees.  Correlating  size  of  board  and  number  of 
committees  gives  a  positive  relationship  oi  p  =:  -|--56.  The  re- 
sult when  correlating  size  of  city  and  number  of  committees  gives 
p  =  +.15.  Thus  it  is  evident  that  there  is  a  significant  positive 
correlation  between  the  size  of  the  board  and  the  number  of  com- 
mittees for  these  one  hundred  cities.  This  then  bears  out  the  con- 
tention of  those  who  hold  that  large  boards  tend  to  have  many 
committees,  and  is  directly  opposed  to  the  statement  made  by  Bal- 
lou  *°  that  there  is  no  correlation  between  the  two.  Since  the  re- 
sult of  our  second  correlation  is  small  the  results  of  the  two  cor- 
relations may  be  taken  as  an  argument  in  favor  of  small  boards 
for  the  administration  of  our  city  school  systems. 

fif  it  were  the  quantity  of  work  to  be  attended  that  is  causing  l 
boards  to  split  up  into  committees  we  should  expect  to  find  a  high  { 
correlation  between  the  size  of  the  city  and  the  number  of  com-  ' 
mittees.     It  may  be  argued  by  some  that  size  of  city  does  not  in-   1 
dicate  the  quantity  of  work  to  be  done,  yet  a  comparison  of  the-J 
minutes  of  large  and  small  cities  indicates  a  larger  amount  of 
work  usually  covered  in  the  course  of  a  regular  meeting  in  the 
larger  cities.     Compare  for  example  the  minutes  for  any  period 
of  several  months  of  such  cities  as  the  nine  of  over  300,000  popu- 
lation in  Table  II  with  those  of  such  cities  as  Reading,  Worcester, 
Albany,  Somerville,  Lancaster,  Grand  Rapids,  Kalamazoo,  Eliza- 
beth, cities  ranging  in  population  from  150,000  to  39,000.     If  the 
minutes  of  the  latter  group  are  compared  with  those  of  cities  with 
a  population  from  5,000  to  25,000  the  difiference  in  the  amount  of 
business  transacted  will  be  further  apparent.     Large  cities  employ 
and  promote  more  teachers,  they  purchase  more  sites  and  erect 
more  buildings  whose  plans  must  be  passed  upon,  and  for  which 
means  of  financing  must  be  adopted.     With  more  actual  business 
to  be  transacted  in  large  cities  we  might  expect  many  committees 

«/&trf.,  p.  114. 


38     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

and  large  cities  to  be  found  together.  Such  is  however  not  the 
case  as  our  correlations  show.  One  reason  why  small  cities  are 
almost  as  apt  to  have  as  many  committees  as  large  cities  is  prob- 
ably due  to  the  fact  that  in  large  cities  additional  executive  officers 
perform  duties  commonly  assigned  to  committees  in  smaller  cities. 
The  fact  that  cities  are  frequently  found  having  many  committees 
is  then  to  be  attributed  to  the  large  board  rather  than  to  the  actual 
demands  of  the  situation. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  size  of  board  appeared  to  be  the  largest 
single  factor  in  determining  whether  or  not  a  board  shall  have 
committees,  information  was  sought  in  cities  visited  as  to  the  pur- 
pose of  committees.  The  reason  commonly  given  by  superin- 
tendents, when  asked  why  the  board  of  education  in  that  particular 
city  found  it  necessary  to  have  committees,  was  that  there  is  too 
much  work  to  be  covered  for  all  members  to  attend  to  all  matters 
needing  attention.  As  one  superintendent  *^  expressed  it,  "There 
is  absolutely  too  much  business  to  be  done  without  committee  ac- 
tion." That  city  has  a  board  of  nine  members  and  thirteen  com- 
mittees, but  a  population  of  less  than  75,000.  Another  city  visited, 
where  the  board  finds  too  much  to  do  as  a  board,  has  a  board  of 
twelve.  In  a  third  city  of  less  than  40,000  population  and  a  board 
of  nine,  in  which  the  writer  attended  a  board  meeting,  practically 
all  of  the  board's  business  is  done  through  committees  and  the  real 
work  of  the  committees  apparently  occurs  behind  closed  doors. 
The  formal  board  meeting  in  that  city  as  in  some  others  visited  is 
little  less  than  an  attempt  to  deceive  the  public.  Committee  re- 
ports, and  resolutions  were  read  so  fast  that  the  writer  had  dif- 
ficulty in  following  them  and  as  fast  as  they  were  read  they  were 
approved.  Of  the  fifteen  cities  visited,  seven  have  boards  of 
either  five  or  six  members.  Six  out  of  the  seven  have  com- 
mittees, but  committee  action  in  four  appears  to  be  largely  per- 
functory. Of  the  remaining  eight,  all  having  boards  of  nine 
or  more,  committee  action  appears  to  play  an  important  part  in 
the  deliberations  of  at  least  six.  While  the  number  of  cases  here 
is  too  few  to  furnish  conclusive  evidence,  there  is  strong  indica- 
tion that  size  of  board  is  the  determining  factor. 

*'  For  reasons  of  courtesy  cities  visited  will  rarely  be  mentioned  in 
name.  The  names  of  the  cities  to  which  specific  references  allude  are 
filed  with  the  Department  of  Educational  Administration,  Teachers  Col- 
lege. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  39 

c.  The  Work  of  Three  Committees  Occurring  most  Frequently 

To  find  out  what  duties  committees  perform  and  if  possible  to 
shed  further  light  on  the  committee  problem  the  duties  of  three 
committees  were  studied  in  some  detail.  The  three  committees 
occurring  most  frequently,  namely,  buildings,  finance,  and 
teachers,*^  were  selected.  A  tabulation  was  made  of  the  duties 
assigned  by  boards  having  either  of  these  committees.  -For 
boards  whose  minutes  were  read  a  tabulation  was  also  made  of 
the  matters  treated  in  reports  of  the  committees  or  referred  to 
them  for  consideration.  For  purposes  of  treatment  it  has  been 
necessary  to  group  duties  closely  related,  the  different  duties  pre- 
scribed and  performed  running  into  hundreds  when  tabulated  as 
originally  worded.  By  so  doing  it  is  possible  for  errors  to  be 
made,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  this  has  in  any  material  way  af- 
fected the  results,  since  no  great  stress  is  here  attached  to  fre- 
quency, particularly  in  the  minutes. 

In  presenting  the  data  collected  on  the  three  committees  an  at- 
tempt will  be  made  to  point  out  the  capacities  in  which  committees 
may  be  of  real  and  valued  service  as  opposed  to  those  in  which 
their  presence  becomes  a  detriment  to  the  proper  administration  of 
the  school  system.  We  shall  attempt  further  to  select  from  a  con- 
structive point  of  view  some  of  the  particular  duties  which  com- 
mittees may  well  exercise.  Contrariwise,  we  shall  attempt  to 
point  out  duties  assigned  to  committees  which  cannot  well  be 
justified  under  the  category  of  proper  matters  for  the  attention 
of  a  committee.  From  lack  of  sufficient  data  there  will  possibly 
remain  in  case  of  each  committee  some  duties  concerning  which 
no  sharp  conclusions  seem  warranted.  The  criteria  used  in  judg- 
ing as  to  the  proper  functions  of  a  committee  are  those  employed 
throughout  the  study,  the  application  of  a  particular  criterion  de- 
pending upon  its  adaptability.  The  relative  importance  of  duties 
assigned  to  committees  may  be  approximated  by  reference  to  the 
tentative  scale  of  board  duties.  Were  sufficient  time  available 
to  secure  a  consensus  of  judgments  on  the  duties  of  the  different 
committees  as  in  the  case  of  the  duties  of  the  board,  it  would  aid 
materially  in  evaluating  committee  practices.  Data  on  the  duties 
of  the  three  committees  were  secured  in  sixty-four,  seventy,  and 

*''  The  precise  title  of  these  committees  is  not  always  that  g^iven  here. 


40     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

seventy-two  cases  respectively  for  the  committees  on  teachers, 
buildings  and  finance.  Seventy-six  cities  having  committees  are, 
however,  represented  owing  to  the  fact  that  nine  of  these  cities 
have  no  committee  on  teachers,  two  none  on  buildings  and  two 
none  on  finance.  In  the  remaining  instances  either  data  were 
insufficient  or  the  rules  were  stated  only  in  general  terms. 

( 1 )  The  Committee  on  Buildings.  Table  VII  gives  the  duties 
as  summarized  for  the  building  committee.  The  first  line  of 
figures  under  each  duty  given  represents  key  numbers  to  cities  of 
Table  I  and  the  second  gives  the  same  facts  for  cities  of  Table  II. 
The  first  point  which  may  be  made  with  reference  to  committee 
action  as  found  in  connection  with  the  building  committee  is  that 
boards  as  a  whole  fail  to  prescribe  specifically  the  limits  of  com- 
mittee action.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  exact  extent  to  which 
committees  participate  in  the  duties  assigned  to  them  or  how  far 
the  rule  expects  them  to  go.  From  the  rules  of  most  boards  it 
is  impossible  to  determine  whether  "repairs"  are  intended  to  mean 
only  very  minor  repairs  or  whether  they  extend  as  far  as  remodel- 
ling a  building.  One  cannot  tell  whether  "supervision  of  build- 
ings" means  only  a  very  general  supervision  or  a  minute  super- 
vision. In  some  cases  it  appears  to  be  only  general  and  in  others 
minute.  Due  in  part,  at  least,  to  such  laxity  the  duties  assigned 
to  the  building  committee  are  such  that  the  committee  may  act 
largely  in  an  executive  capacity,  independent  of  the  board's 
salaried  executive  officers.  It  is  not  required  to  assume  a  posi- 
tion which  is  more  in  accord  with  principles  of  good  management 
and  which  permits  of  the  professional  skill  of  the  chief  executive 
and  his  assistants  being  used,  i.e.,  a  position  advisory  to  and  in 
support  of  the  chief  executive. 

The  one  important  duty  of  Table  VII  which  appears  least  sub- 
ject to  two  possible  lines  of  action  is  that  of  examining  the  report 
or  recommendations  of  executive  officers  of  the  building  depart- 
ment. It  occurs,  however,  in  the  rules  of  but  three  cities,  St. 
Louis,  Louisville,  and  Covington.  St.  Louis  is  an  exception  to 
common  practice  in  that  it  does  specify  what  the  nature  of  the 
committee  activities  shall  be : 

"The  duties  of  standing  committees  shall  be  supervisory  and  not  execu- 
tive. Each  committee  shall  have  the  power  to  investigate  the  affairs  of  the 
department  under  its  supervision,  and  to  call  for  information   from  the 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  41 


TABLE  VII" 
Building  Committee 


^ 


Rules    Min. 

Inspect  or  supervise  buildings :  1,  2,  4,  7,  8,  12-3,  19,  20,  31-3. 
3S-9,  42,  45,  49,  50,  56-9,  67-70,  74-6,  78,  81,  83-4,  87-9,  90-1, 

93,   99 43 

15,  39,  47,  56 -      4 

Have  cliarge,  control,  determine  or  supervise  repairs  and  im- 
provements :   2,  5,  7,  8,  10,  20-1,  25,  28,  ZZ-7,  41,  44-5,  53, 

58,  62,  66,  70-1,  82-3,  85-9,  93-4,  99 33 

5,  8,  11,  12,  15,  17,  22,  29-31,  33-4,  40,  42,  51,  53,  55, 

59,  60 19 

Have  charge,  control,  oversight  or  supervision  of  construction 

or  record  acceptance  of  work :  5,  7,  12-3, 19, 28,  34,  36-7,  39, 

41,  44,  47-8,  51,  54-5,  57-9,  66-7,  70,  83-6,  89 28 

3,  6.  15,  22,  35,  56-7.  60 8 

Recommend  repairs  or  improvements  or  estimate  cost :  1,  5, 
8,  10,  19-21,  28,  31-2,  36-9,  44-5,  55,  60,  71,  7Z,  75,  78,  81-3, 

87,  90,  93,  99 29 

3,  4,  14-5,  17,  29,  34,  44,  55-6,  59,  60 12 

Recommend  janitors  or  their  salaries;  control,  direct,  super- 
vise or  investigate  charges  vs.  them  or  other  building  em- 
ployees :  2,  5,  7,  12,  20-1,  32-4,  36,  38-9,  41-2,  44,  48-9,  53, 

55-7,  59,  74,  76,  83-4,  87,  89,  91 29 

3,  6,  11,  15,  17,  28,  35,  50,  54-6,  59,  60 13 

Recommend  purchase  or  selection  of  sites  or  erection  of  build- 
ings: 4,  10,  12-3.  38-9,  41,  44-5.  53,  55,  57-8,  60,  67,  69, 
75,   78,   83-4 20 

6,  8,  15,  22,  35,  43,  51,  55-6,  58 10 

Secure  bids,  recommend  or  award  contracts,  or  see  that  they 

are  carried  out:    5,  10,  12,  25-6,  34,  36,  38,  50-1,  60,  70, 

73-4,   85,  88 16 

3.   4,   6,   8,   11-3,   15,   17,   20,   33,   35-6,   38,   40,   42,   44, 

50,  52-60 27 

Examine,  submit,  or  supervise  plans :    1,  5,  12-3,  17,  37,  39,  51, 

53,  70,  83,  85,  88 13 

8,  17,  22.  33,  35,  39,  53,  55-6,  59,  60 11 

Purchase  or  make  recommendations  on  the  purchase  of  sup- 
plies or  equipment:  2,  5,  28,  31,  34,  36,  38,  50,  53-4 10 

3,  8,  13,  15,  17,  20,  35,  45,  50,  53,  55-7,  60 14 

Attend  to  or  recommend  purchase,  sale  or  renting  of  prop- 
erty:  4,  5,  8,  36,  39,  41,  51,  57,  59 9 

2,  6,  11,  13,  15.  22,  40,  43,  50,  52,  55,  59 12 

*8  Upper  rows  of  numbers  refer  to  cities  of  Table  I,  lower  to  Table  II. 


42     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Have  charge  of  or  make  recommendations  on  insurance :   12-3, 

32,  35,  39,  53,  69,  75 8 

35,  41,  45-6 4 

Direct  or  supervise  executive  officers  of  building  department: 

12,  29,  32,  44 4 

Approve  bills  or  recommend  payment  on  contracts :  20,  35,  47, 

54-5   5 

3,  8,  10,  33-5,  52-3,  55,  59,  60 11 

Pass  on  request  for  use  of  building  or  recommend  conditions 

for  use :    7,  20,  91 3 

6,  30,  35,  51-2,  55,  60 7 

Recommend  superintendent  of  buildings,  architect  or  engineer, 
or  their  salaries — employ  draughtsman,  inspectors;  super- 
vise or  control  them:    4,  5,  12,  51,  89 5 

6,  8,   15,  22 4 

Examine  report  or  recommendations  of  executive  officers  of 
the  department  and  make  recommendations  thereon:  11, 
25-6  3 

13,  52 2 

Recommend  budget  for  building  department,  methods  of  rais- 
ing funds,  apportionment  or  transfer :   48,  93 2 

6,  8,  56-7 4 

Supervise  boundaries :    5,  38 2 

3,  15,  33 3 


administrative  officer  of  the  department,  and  any  assistant,  subordinate 
or  employee  thereof  .  .  .  No  standing  committee  shall  have  any  power 
to  direct  the  action  of  the  administrative  officer  or  of  any  assistant,  sub- 
ordinate or  employee  of  the  department  under  its  charge  .  .  ."  *^ 

The  need  of  committee  participation  in  the  supervision  of  build- 
ing construction  would  seem  to  depend  upon  the  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  an  executive  officer  competent  to  undertake  such  work. 
In  cities  having  no  superintendent  of  buildings  this  duty  is  quite 
likely  to  be  administrative  in  character.  Only  nineteen  of  the 
cities  of  Table  I  represented  among  the  first  three  duties  of  Table 
VII,  have  a  superintendent  of  buildings.  From  this  it  would  seem 
that  as  far  as  the  supervision  of  construction  is  concerned  the 
committee  often  performs  executive  functions  and  does  not  limit 
itself  to  an  advisory  capacity.  It  may  be  that  in  some  cities  mem- 
bers of  the  board  have  had  valuable  experience  in  supervising  the 
erection  of  buildings.     But  why  not  attempt  to  secure  the  highest 

*»  Rules  of  the  Board  of  Education,  1914,  Rule  13,  Sec.  VI. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  43 

type  of  executive  service  the  board  can  afford?  If  the  cities  rep- 
resented in  the  first  three  duties  given  are  distributed  according 
to  size  it  will  be  seen  that  forty-four  of  the  sixty-four  have  a 
population  of  more  than  25,000.  These  forty-four  at  least  might 
be  expected  to  provide  a  trained  assistant  to  the  superintendent  to 
take  charge  of  buildings  rather  than  to  trust  to  the  uncertain  lay 
expertness  of  a  committee.  It  may  be,  however,  that  executive 
officers  desire  the  committee  to  share  in  assuming  the  responsi- 
bility for  the  approval  of  the  construction  work  of  new  buildings. 
This  occurs  in  some  cities.  Such  service  by  board  members, 
however,  represents  lay  executive  action. 

Members  of  the  committee  may  render  what  is  possibly  the 
most  expert  service  in  the  purchase  of  sites.  Business  men  of 
ability  may  be  more  familiar  with  real  estate  prices  and  values 
and  may  be  able  to  drive  a  sharper  bargain  than  an  executive  of- 
ficer. This  is  particularly  true  in  smaller  cities  where  the  chief 
executive  has  had  only  a  limited  amount  of  experience.  If  they 
have  had  considerable  experience  in  the  real  estate  field  as  hap- 
pens to  be  the  case  in  a  number  of  cities  covered  by  the  study, 
they  may  render  the  community  a  valuable  service.  This  will  be 
true  if  their  expert  knowledge  is  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
chief  executive  and  if  they  recommend  purchases  only  after  he 
has  assured  them  that  the  site  is  adapted  to  the  educational  re- 
quirements. Unless  their  services  are  rendered  in  this  manner 
we  may  have  valuable  experience  and  training  on  the  part  of  the 
members  of  the  committee  on  the  one  hand  and  the  chief  executive 
and  his  assistants  on  the  other  working  at  cross  purposes  rather 
than  coordinating  at  a  maximum  efficiency.  An  illustration  of 
how  this  service  may  be  rendered  is  given  by  Fremont,  Nebr. 
After  the  board  and  the  superintendent  had  decided  upon  the  de- 
sirability of  a  certain  site  for  its  new  high  school  building  a  mem- 
ber of  the  board  engaged  in  the  real  estate  business  was  able, 
ostensibly  for  private  purposes,  to  secure  options  on  a  major  por- 
tion of  the  block  and  thus  prevent  an  inflated  appraisal  value  on 
the  balance  before  owners  were  aware  of  his  real  motive.  This 
is  a  type  of  lay  administrative  service  that  cannot  be  overlooked. 

The  second  and  more  striking  thing  perhaps  to  be  noted  is  the 
lack  of  agreement  even  between  boards  which  decide  that  their 
organization  demands  a  building  committee.     This  may  be  seen 


44     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

from  the  total  column  of  frequencies  for  each  provision  as  found 
in  the  rules.  Only  the  first  occurs  in  more  than  one-half  of  the 
seventy-three  cases.  It  is  only  if  we  grant,  as  some  may  contend 
we  should,  that  the  first  three  duties  given  refer  to  the  same  func- 
tion in  practice,  that  we  have  anything  like  agreement  as  to  what 
should  be  some  of  the  duties  of  a  building  committee.  In  that 
case  we  would  have  sixty- four  cities  ^°  (omitting  duplications)  out 
of  seventy-three.  Only  six  of  the  duties  prescribed  occur  with  a 
frequency  of  twenty  or  more. 

A  third  point  to  be  noted  is  the  evident  difference  in  relative 
importance  of  the  duties  assigned  this  committee.  While  we  can- 
not assume  to  measure  accurately  the  relative  importance  of  any 
of  them,  we  may  reach  an  approximation  by  referring  to  the  ten- 
tative scale  of  board  duties  for  comparison.  The  assignments  of 
the  building  committee  will  be  seen  to  vary  all  the  way  from  such 
relatively  important  matters  as  examining  the  report  of  executive 
officers  of  the  department  and  examining  building  plans  or  super- 
vising construction  to  such  minor  matters  as  approving  bills  or 
supervising  boundaries.  In  so  far  as  such  duties  as  supervising 
construction,  examining  building  plans,  making  recommendations 
on  the  selection  of  sites  and  the  erection  of  buildings,  examining 
the  report  of  executive  officers  of  the  building  department  and 
recommending  the  budget  for  buildings,  represent  a  careful  study 
and  weighing  of  the  superintendent's  proposed  policies  in  order 
to  help  him  to  shape  his  own  judgment  and  to  support  him  in  his 
proposals  before  the  board,  they  appear  to  be  the  duties  most 
worthy  of  committee  attention. 

For  the  purpose  of  having  a  group  of  men  who  have  already 
given  careful  attention  to  the  plans  of  a  building  as  recommended 
by  the  executive  officers  and  who  stand  ready  to  defend  the  action 
recommended  when  the  board  meets  for  discussion  of  the  plans 
the  building  committee  may  furnish  needed  support.  The  same 
would  be  true  with  reference  to  the  question  as  to  whether  or  not 
a  new  building  is  needed  and  as  to  the  location  to  be  chosen,  the 
report  of  executive  officers  on  the  progress  of  work  on  buildings, 
and  the  budget  for  buildings.  These  are  important  matters  in 
which  executives  may  desire  the  benefit  of  discussion  to  assist 
them  in  shaping  the  policies  to  be  recommended  to  the  board  and 

80  Table  VII. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  45 

in  discussing  the  proposed  policies  before  the  board.  The  danger 
is  that  the  committee  instead  of  supporting  executive  officers  may 
attempt  to  submit  alternative  policies  not  approved  by  the  execu- 
tive officers.  In  such  event  the  board  is  required  to  choose  be- 
tween its  professional,  paid  advisors  and  its  lay  advisors. 

In  the  event  that  committee  action  takes  the  direction  indicated 
above  it  is  not  a  case  of  interference  with  the  professional  ability 
of  the  chief  executive  and  his  assistants  but  an  attempt  to  bring 
to  his  assistance  and  place  at  his  disposal  whatever  of  lay  expert- 
ness  members  of  the  committee  may  have  acquired  through  long 
experience.  The  duties  of  a  committee  are  important  for  it  to 
perform  in  so  far  as  such  action  becomes  an  aid  and  not  a  hin- 
drance in  the  way  of  permitting  full  use  of  the  skill  represented  in 
the  executive  officers  of  the  system,  i,  e.,  the  superintendent  and 
his  assistants.  They  are  important  also  so  far  as  the  board  is 
placed  in  a  position  to  know  more  fully  the  probable  results  of 
one  action  or  another  toward  proposed  policies.  Finally  they  are 
important  in  so  far  as  the  principles  of  good  business  administra- 
tion indicated  in  the  chapter  following  are  observed. 

Such  being  the  case  the  danger  of  permitting  a  committee  to 
exercise  such  a  function  as  recommending  an  architect  or  an 
engineer  or  a  superintendent  of  buildings  should  be  apparent. 
This  duty  is  assigned  the  building  committee  in  Akron,  Ohio, 
New  York  City,  Yonkers,  Portland,  Ore.,  and  Worcester,  all  cities 
steeped  in  committee  activity,  none  having  less  than  eight  com- 
mittees and  three  having  boards  of  fifteen  or  more.  The  selection 
of  such  officers  is  a  matter  in  which  the  two  possible  lines  of  com- 
mittee action  need  to  be  carefully  distinguished.  Since  the  board 
expects  the  superintendent  to  be  its  professional  leader  he  must 
have  assistants  capable  of  rendering  the  quality  of  service  he  re- 
quires. The  committee  cannot  have  a  standard  different  from 
that  of  the  superintendent  if  he  and  not  the  committee  is  to  be 
the  head  of  the  school  system.  For  a  committee  to  choose  subor- 
dinate executive  officers  is  contrary  to  accepted  principles  of  busi- 
ness administration.  It  represents  a  practice  as  absurd  as  to  ex- 
pect that  the  road  committee  rather  than  the  general  manager  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  should  nominate  the  super- 
intendent of  transportation.  If  the  committee  serves  only  to  as- 
■  sist  the  superintendent  in  arriving  at  a  decision  as  to  the  man  most 


46     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

competent  to  fill  the  position,  it  may  render  him  valued  support. 
Then  its  service  is  advisory  rather  than  executive.  Unless  the 
rules  specify  carefully  and  unless  the  superintendent  is  careful  to 
see  that  this  duty  of  the  committee  is  carefully  prescribed  as  a 
part  of  his  own  contract  with  the  board  there  is  little  assurance 
that  the  committee  will  not  work  at  cross  purposes  with  the  super- 
intendent. 

In  such  matters  as  recommending  janitors,  securing  bids,  pur- 
chasing or  recommending  the  purchase  of  equipment,  directing 
the  executive  officers  of  the  building  department  and  passing  upon 
requests  for  the  use  of  buildings,  the  building  committee  seems  to 
be  outside  of  the  field  of  its  legitimate  endeavor.  Each  of  these 
are  matters  requiring  professional  knowledge  and  judgment, 
They  are  executive  and  belong  properly  to  the  superintendent  and 
his  assistants.  Janitors  must  meet  the  requirements  that  the 
superintendent  of  buildings  regards  as  necessary  in  his  depart- 
ment. They  must  also  be  of  such  character  and  training  as  to 
fit  in  well  with  the  educational  scheme  of  the  superintendent. 
They  must  be  subject  to  the  control  and  direction  of  both  of  these 
officers  if  the  janitorial  service  is  to  reach  the  stage  of  efficiency. 
to  which  the  executive  officers  of  the  system  are  capable  of  lead- 
ing it. 

Recommendations  on  the  purchase  of  equipment  may  assume 
two  aspects,  the  one  advisory,  approving  the  superintendent's  re- 
quest that  the  board  purchase  equipment,  and  the  other  executive, 
having  to  do  with  the  actual  selection.  The  latter  represents  an 
interference  in  a  professional  matter.  The  rules  seldom  distin- 
guish between  the  two.  The  folly  of  assigning  such  duties  to  a 
committee  was  illustrated  recently  by  the  building  committee  in 
Chicago  which  decided  "on  the  toss  of  a  coin"  °^  to  accept  an  offer 
for  the  sale  of  an  automatic  screw  machine  of  $925.  The  princi- 
pal had  recommended  its  sale  and  the  supervisor  of  technical  work 
and  the  superintendent  had  given  their  approval. 

The  attempt  to  direct  officers  of  the  building  department,  which 
occurs  in  Yonkers,  St.  Joseph,  Moline,  and  Sioux  City,  and  did 
until  recently  in  Denver,  represents  direct  interference  with  the 
duty  of  the  chief  executive.  Cpnsidering  requests  for  the  use  of 
buildings  represents  a  waste  of  time  that  must  be  withdrawn  from 

»i  Minutes  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Dec.  22,  1915,  p.  138. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  47 

more  important  matters.  In  a  meeting  attended  of  one  board 
which  has  a  committee  on  buildings,  approximately  one-half  of 
the  time  was  consumed  in  considering  requests  for  the  use  of  the 
high  school  building. 

A  further  aspect  of  the  committee  question  is  revealed  by  the 
duties  assigned  the  building  committee.  If  we  take  the  cities  rep- 
resented among  those  whose  boards  prescribe  that  the  building 
committee  shall  examine  building  plans,  we  find  that  of  the 
thirteen,  seven  have  boards  of  twelve  or  more  members  and  two 
more  have  boards  of  nine  members.  Of  the  seven  with  boards  of 
twelve  or  more,  one  has  sixteen  committees,  two  have  fifteen,  one 
eleven,  one  eight,  one  seven,  and  one  six.  This  suggests  that  on 
such  important  matters  as  the  consideration  of  construction  plans 
large  boards  may  tend  to  permit  or  even  expect  the  committee  to 
do  the  board's  own  thinking.  Committee  policy  may  tend  to  take 
the  place  of  board  policy. 

(2)  The  Committee  on  Teachers.  Table  VIII  gives  similar 
facts  for  the  committee  on  teachers.  That  a  fewer  number  of 
boards  provide  a  committee  on  teachers  may  be  evidence  that  the 
professional  nature  of  many  of  the  duties  commonly  assigned  this 
committee  is  recognized  at  least  by  some  boards. 

As  in  case  of  the  building  committee  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
the  extent  to  which  committee  participation  is  intended.  Rules 
not  infrequently  omit  to  state  whether  the  committee  may  make 
alternative  recommendations  to  the  board  in  such  professional 
matters  as  the  appointment  of  teachers  or  the  selection  of  text- 
books and  course  of  study,  or  whether  their  function  is  to  weigh 
recommendations  of  the  superintendent.  Not  infrequently  the 
duties  assigned  this  committee  are  so  worded  that  if  the  com- 
mittee desired  to  exercise  its  prerogatives  it  could  become  a  serious 
factor  in  the  actual  administration  of  the  educational  department. 

The  provision  for  committee  participation  in  the  appointment 
of  teachers  is  most  common,  occurring  fifty-two  times  in  a  pos- 
sible sixty-five.  Aside  from  this  single  exception  there  is  how- 
ever, as  in  case  of  the  building  committee,  little  agreement  as  to 
the  duties  that  should  be  assigned  this  committee.  Only  three 
provisions  occur  with  a  frequei\cy  of  twenty  or  more.  Some 
boards  assign  certain  duties  to  this  committee  which  we  found 
were  assigned  by  others  to  the  committee  on  buildings. 


48     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 


TABLE  VIII 52 

Teachers  Committee 

Rules    Mjn. 

Make  recommendations  for  the  appointment  of  teachers:  1, 
2,  4,  7,  8,  10,  12-3,  15,  17,  21,  26,  28-9,  31-9,  42,  44-5,  48-50, 

53-6,  58-9,  66.  71,  74-5,  78.  81-5,  87-89,  94,  96-7,  99 52 

2-6,    9-11,    13,    15.    20,    22,    29-31,    33,    35,    39,    43,    47, 

50-2,  54-6,  58-9,  60 29 

Make  recommendations  on  salary  or  appropriations   for:    1, 

2,  4,  7,  10,  12-3,  17,  20-1,  32,  34,  36,  38-9,  42,  45,  50,  53-4, 

58,  69,  81-3,  88,  89 27 

3,  5,    6,    9,    10,    13,    15-6,    20,    30-1,    35,    39,    47,    49, 

52,  54-5,  57-60 22 

Consider  changes  in  text-books  or  courses  of  study:  7,  8, 
10.  12.  20-1.  29.  35,  38,  40,  47,  49,  51,  54,  62,  69,  75,  78, 

81,  96 20 

2,  4,  8,  11,  13,  15,  34,  47,  49,  52,  55,  57,  59,  60 14 

Ascertain  qualifications  of  teachers,  or  have  charge  of  exam- 
inations, or  recommend  members  of  board  of  examiners : 

4,  8,  10.  13.  15.  17,  34,  36,  40,  42,  47,  49,  51,  53,  57-8,  87,  89.     18 

4,  6,  15,  55,  59,  60 6 

Investigate  charges  against  teachers,  suspend  or  recommend 
dismissal:    2,  4.  8.  10.  13,  28.  33,  35,  38,  44,  49,  50.  53-4, 

67,   70 16 

6,  59 2 

Make  recommendations  on  assignment,  transfer,  promotion, 
leaves   of  absence,  or  resignations  of  teachers :    2,  4,  8, 

13,  28,  32,  49,  50,  53,  66,  71,  78,  83,  89,  96 15 

2-4,  6,  9-11,  13,  15,  29,  30,  47,  51-2,  54-6,  58-60 20 

Consider  superintendent's  report  or  recommendations  for 
extensions  or  readjustments:    4,  8,  10-1,  20,  25-6,  28,  36, 

45,  49,  56,  66,  70 14 

2-4,  6,  8,  13,  15,  35,  49,  52,  55-7,  59,  60 15 

Visit  schools,  study  the  work  of  teachers,  supervise  their 
work,  or  report  defects  in  instruction  or  management; 
call  teachers'  meetings:    4,  8,  10,  31,  35-40,  70,  84 12 

Prepare  rules  for  the  government  of  schools;  make  recom- 
mendations on  or  have  charge  of  matters  of   discipline 

and  management:    4,  7,  10,  12,  29,  33,  44,  53-4,  69 10 

8,  47 2 

Consider  matters  of  changing  boundaries:   2,  10,  13,  67,  68..       5 

6,   13,  57 3 

62  Upper  rows  of  numbers  refer  to  cities  in  Table  I,  lower  to  Table  II. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  49 

Determine  classification  of  schools,  direct  manner  of  conduct- 
ing pupils'  examinations,  pass  on  qualifications  of  pupils 
for  promotion,  recommend  changes  in  marking  system  or 
recommend  methods  of  promotion:    2,  8,  40,  49,  68,  78..      6 

5,  52,  60 3 

Recommend  appointment  of  the  superintendent:    45,  56 2 

39    1 

Recommend  janitors  or  supervise  them:    1,  82,  84 3 

Approve  expenditures  for  supplies,  pay  roll;  authorize  emer- 
gency expenditures  or  consider  matters  of  tuition :    10, 

12,  20,  51,  54 5 

12-3,  35,  49,  51,  55,  57,  58 8 

Have  charge  of  or  recommend  measures  of  enforcing  com- 
pulsory attendance :   53,  67 2 

52    1 

Recommend  authorizing  purchase  of  supplies  or  equipment: 
12,  20,  54,  59,  62 5 

6,  15,   35,   60 4 

As  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  duties  given  to  the  com- 
mittee on  teachers  we  find  a  wide  range.  Considering  the  super- 
intendent's report,  appointing  teachers  and  fixing  their  salaries 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  superintendent  are  important 
functions  for  the  board  itself  to  perform.  It  is  to  be  questioned 
whether  the  board  in  the  discharge  of  its  own  most  important  duty, 
the  selection  of  the  superintendent,  should  expect  to  be  guided  by 
the  recommendations  of  a  committee.  Yet  two  boards  ask  the 
committee  on  teachers  to  make  recommendations  in  this  matter. 
In  so  far  as  the  committee's  choice  tends  to  be  substituted  for 
board  choice  it  is  bad  policy.  Recommendations  of  those  who 
know  most  about  the  ability  of  men  available  for  the  position  of 
chief  executive  can  be  reduced  to  writing  to  which  all  may  have  ac- 
cess and  which  all  may  ponder  over  and  discuss.  The  most  eco- 
nomical use  of  a  board's  time  in  the  case  of  this  duty  may  be  the 
use  of  a  large  amount  of  it.  The  appointment  of  teachers  is  some- 
times with  and  sometimes  without  the  approval  of  the  superin- 
tendent. When  appointments  are  controlled  by  either  the  board  or 
a  committee,  as  happened  recently  in  Burlington,  Vermont,  or  as 
may  occur  in  Philadelphia,  it  represents  a  pure  waste  of  the  super- 
intendent's professional  skill  which  the  community  has  a  right  to 
expect  to  be  utilized.     That  such  waste  of  professional  skill  occurs 


50     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

at  times  may  be  seen  from  the  minutes  of  Burlington,  Vermont." 
The  superintendent  nominated  a  science  teacher  but  the  board 
failed  to  approve;  he  made  a  second  nomination  and  the  board 
again  refused  to  approve.  The  board  then  filled  the  position  with 
a  man  not  recommended  by  the  superintendent.  In  Philadelphia 
the  committee  may  nominate  irrespective  of  the  superintendent's 
wishes.^*  These  are  clear  cut  cases  of  interference  in  a  profes- 
sional matter. 

The  purely  professional  matters  in  which  the  committee  on 
teachers  is  asked  to  take  part  is  indeed  surprising.  It  is  asked 
by  some  boards  to  attend  to  such  professional  duties  as  super- 
vising instruction  and  passing  upon  the  qualifications  of  pupils  for 
promotion.  It  is  somewhat  surprising  that  Lead,  S.  D.,  in  1908 
or  Topeka  in  1914  did  not  make  their  committee  on  teachers, 
since  their  services  were  to  be  had  without  charge,  head  of  the 
educational  department  in  name  as  well  as  in  power.  "The 
teachers  member  .  .  .  shall  observe  the  modes  of  instruction 
and  courses  of  study,  report  any  defect  or  abuse  and  recommend 
any  changes  that  may  seem  desirable."  °^  "It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
this  committee"  to  "examine  the  schools  throughout  the  city  as 
carefully  as  practicable,  and  report  to  the  superintendent  any  de- 
fects in  the  management  or  instruction  that  they  may  notice."  ^° 

If  committees  when  assigned  such  purely  professional  duties 
as  just  noted  faithfully  perform  their  duties  violations  of  two  of 
our  criteria  will  be  evident.  In  the  first  place  there  will  be  inter- 
ference with  teachers,  principals,  supervisors,  and  superinten- 
dents in  the  rendering  of  professional  services,  for  which  the  com- 
munity is  paying.  In  the  second  place  such  action  on  the  part  of 
committees  requires  an  amount  of  time  which  none,  save  possibly 
men  of  no  business  of  their  own,  can  well  afford  to  spend  and 
still  attend  to  the  matters  which  are  most  important  for  a  com- 
mittee or  a  board  to  consider. 

The  duties  which,  aside  from  making  recommendations  on  the 
appointment  of  the  chief  executive,  are  most  worthy  of  the  com- 

53  Burlington,  Vt. :     Minutes  June  17,  26,  July  2,  1915. 

»*  By-laws,  1914. 

"Lead,  S.D.,  Rules  and  Regulations,  1908,  sec.  17.  The  rules  of  1908 
were  received  by  Bryson  Library,  Teachers  College,  as  late  as  1914  upon 
request  for  a  copy  of  the  latest  rules  and  regulations. 

^*  Topeka :     Rules  and  Regulations,  1914,  Sec.  10. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  51 

mittee's  attention  are  considering  the  superintendent's  report  and 
recommendations  for  the  extension  or  readjustment  of  the  scope 
of  educational  endeavors,  and  making  recommendations  on  mat- 
ters of  salary.  Approximately  one-fourth  of  the  sixty-five  cities 
have  seen  fit  to  place  the  consideration  of  the  superintendent's 
report  among  the  duties  of  the  committee  on  teachers. 

As  evidence  of  how  this  provision  may  operate  where  a  board 
and  its  committees  have  come  to  accept  the  business  principle 
that  the  chief  executive  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  educational 
leader  and  that  suggestions  of  policy  shall  come  through  him,  we 
may  cite  St.  Louis.  Here  the  board  recognizes  that  the  position 
of  committees  should  be  one  of  weighing  the  superintendent's 
recommendations,  to  the  end  that  the  community  shall  be  pro- 
vided with  those  types  of  education  which  it  most  needs.  The 
board  found  it  necessary  because  of  limited  funds  to  ask  the 
superintendent  to  suggest  readjustments.  The  committee  on  in- 
struction reported  as  follows : 

"Your  committee  found  itself,  after  the  greatest  and  most  anxious  con- 
sideration of  the  subject,  compelled  to  approve  the  superintendent's  recom- 
mendations that  the  greater  part  of  the  summer  school  work  be  discon- 
tinued" .  .  .  "the  income  of  the  board  from  all  sources  will  not  be  suffi- 
cient to  continue  in  its  entirety  all  the  branches  which  up  to  now  have 
been  maintained  by  the  instruction  department.  This  condition  is  a  con- 
sequence, of  course,  of  the  board's  activities  in  the  admission  of  the  five- 
year  old  children  to  the  schools,  the  greater  care  of  the  general  health  of 
our  young  people  .  .  .  the  natural  growth  of  the  school  population  and 
the  consequent  employment  of  an  additional  number  of  teachers  and  added 
school  accommodations,"  .  .  .  "we  accept  the  superintendent's  recom- 
mendation to  dispense  with  what,  in  his  opinion,  and  in  the  opinion  of  the 
committee,  will  do  the  least  harm  and  affect  the  least  number  of  chil- 
dren .  .  ."  87 

The  president  of  the  board  in  making  a  report  to  the  public  on 
this  same  matter  after  its  consideration  by  the  superintendent  and 
the  committees  on  instruction  and  finance,  stated  that : 

"the  board  feels  that  it  should  retrench  in  every  way  possible  in  order 
to  increase  its  school  room  accommodations,  it  having  113  portable  build- 
ings. .  .  the  superintendent  of  instruction  informed  the  committee  that 
in  his  opinion  the  following  expenses  might,  with  least  harm,  in  the  order 
in  which  they  are  mentioned,  be  discontinued : 

»».  Minutes,  June  8,  191S,  p.  1174. 


52     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

1st.     The  expense  caused  by  wider  use  of  the  school  buildings 

2nd.    Appropriations  for  school  sites 

3rd.    Expense  of  optional  extra  hours  in  high  schools 

4th.     Excessive  expense  of  Evening  High  Schools 

5th.     The  following  parts  of  the  Summer  Term  Schools ; 

a.  High  School 

b.  Grade    schools,    with    the    exception    of    the    fourth 

quarter  of  the  eighth  grade 

c.  Grade  Manual  Schools 

"For  the  present,  it  was  concluded  therefore  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
summer  term  activities  be  discontinued. 


President."  5« 

Here  was  an  opportunity  for  the  committee  to  weigh  the  judg- 
ment of  their  chief  executive  and  to  debate  that  judgment  with 
other  members  of  the  board. 

The  practice  of  a  board  which  assigns  the  duty  of  considering 
the  superintendent's  report  to  a  committee  must  be  judged  good 
or  bad  in  so  far  as  it  requires  its  executive  to  present  the  evidence 
for  and  against  his  proposals.  It  is  to  be  judged  in  so  far  as  it 
discusses  these  proposals  with  him  in  the  light  of  the  evidence 
and  refuses  to  accept  blindly  the  recommendations  of  the  com- 
mittee. 

Aside  from  the  duties  mentioned  as  worthy  of  committee  at- 
tention few  remain  which  do  not  have  professional  aspects. 

(3)  The  Committee  on  Finance.  In  Table  IX  we  have  the 
duties  considered  by  seventy-three  boards  as  of  sufficient  import- 
ance to  be  assigned  by  rule  to  the  committee  on  finance  and  the 
same  duties  as  found  for  cities  whose  minutes  were  examined. 

There  are  some  duties  in  whose  performance  this  committee 
may  either  assume  an  administrative  character,  or  take  an  ad- 
visory position,  but  on  the  whole  the  duties  prescribed  for  the 
finance  committee  are  more  explicit  than  in  the  case  of  the  two 
committees  previously  considered.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact 
that  board  members  from  their  own  training  and  experience  know 
more  of  the  possibilities  and  limitations  in  the  field  of  finance 
than  in  a  field  like  instruction.  It  was  a  quite  common  occur- 
rence to  find  among  the  boards  visited  that  some  members  of 
the  finance  committee  were  men  engaged  in  the  banking  business. 

"/6»U,  pp.  1194-1199. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  53 


TABLE  IX  59 
Finance  Committee 

Rules    Mia 
Estimate  the  annual  budget  and  consider  measures  of  finance 
for  meeting  it:    1,  2,  4,  5,  7,  8,  10-12,  17,  19,  21,  29,  31-2, 
34,  36,  38-40,  42,  45,  48-51,  56-9,  62,  67-71,  73,  75-6,  78,  81-2, 

85-9,  91,  93,  99 50 

2-4,  6,  8,  13,  15-7,  20,  23,  36-8,  47,  49,  54,  55,  56,  57,  59. .  21 

Examine  bills  and  accounts  of  expenditures — see  that  only 
authorized  expenditures  are  made:  4,  7,  8,  10,  12-3,  15, 
17,  19-22,  25-6,  28,  31,  33-4,  36,  38-41,  47-50,  53-5,  57-8,  60, 

62,68-70,73-5,80,84-7,90-1,93,94,97,99 51 

2-4,  6,  8,  10-1,  15-7,  20,  23,  26,  30,  34-5,  42,  44,  47-9,  52, 

56-8,    60 26 

Supervise  or  have  charge  of  finance — recommend  authorizing 
expenditures  within  or  not  provided  by  budget:  1,  2,  4, 
5,  10,  12-3,  17,  20-2,  29,  33-4,  41,  44,  49,  51,  53,  55,  58, 
62,  67,  69,  75-6,  81-4,  86,  88,  93,  99 34 

2,  3,  5,  6,  8,  15,  52,  54-5,  57,  59,  60 12 

Examine  reports  of  receipts  and  expenditures,  and  the  condi- 
tion of  funds:    8,  11-3,  17,  19-21,  33-4,  36,  41,  48,  51,  53, 

55,  67,  87,  89,  90,  93 21 

3,  4,  6,  10,  15,  34,  39,  52,  55-7 11 

Have  charge  of   insurance:    1,  4,  20-1,  28,  47,  49,  76,  83-4, 

88,   99 12 

15,    55 2 

Supervise  the  method  of  accounting:  8,  17,  21,  42,  57,  67,  71. .       7 

15    1 

Consider  salary  changes :   26,  28,  40,  55,  57 5 

2,  3,  6,  8,  9,  15,  33,  55,  57 9 

Consider  safeguarding  moneys — examining  securities,  bonds, 

contracts,  depositories:    12-3,  41,  47,  57,  80,  83,  85-6 9 

2,  3,  15,  55 4 

Consummate  large  financial  transactions  when  authorized — 
negotiate   loans,   sell   bonds,   change   securities,   purchase 

sites :   57,  67-8 3 

2,  8,  21,  54 4 

Represent  the  Board  before  the  city  or  the  legislature:    1, 

5,   53,  82 4 

11,  12,  15,  35-6 5 

Estimate  the  value  of  board  property  and  invoices  thereof : 

20,   58 2 

2,  5,  6,  11,  49 5 

»•  Upper  rows  of  numbers  refer  to  cities  of  Table  I,  lower  to  Table  II. 


54     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Employ  or  control  building  or  office  employees  and  janitors: 

20,  28 2 

60   1 

Consider  matters  pertaining  to  bids  and  awarding  contracts — 

buildings,  equipment,  supplies:    26 1 

2,  56 2 

Have  charge  of  school  census :   21 1 

In  two  Middle  Western  cities  in  particular  that  were  visited,  the 
finance  committee  of  the  board  of  education  included  in  its  mem- 
bership men  generally  considered  among  the  prominent  bankers 
of  that  section  of  the  country.  Such  men  are  to  be  thought  of 
as  lay  experts  in  large  questions  of  finance  such  as  negotiating 
loans,  buying  or  selling  bonds,  considering  matters  of  safeguard- 
ing the  board's  funds.  Chief  executive  officers  in  these  cities 
frankly  acknowledged  that  these  men  were  more  competent  to 
administer  large  measures  of  finance  than  they  themselves. 

Only  the  first  four  of  Table  IX  are  assigned  by  twenty  or  more 
of  the  seventy-three  boards.  On  all  other  duties  they  fail  to 
agree  in  even  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  cases.  It  is  possible 
that  certain  combinations  could  be  made  of  the  duties  as  listed 
in  Table  IX,  which  would  tend  to  give  the  appearance  at  least 
that  there  is  more  nearly  substantial  agreement  as  to  what  cer- 
tain duties  of  a  finance  committee  should  be.  Some  may  mean 
examining  accounts  of  expenditures  to  be  the  same  thing  as  ex- 
amining reports  of  them.  However,  if  we  combine  the  second 
and  fourth  of  the  duties,  the  total  increases  only  to  fifty-five.  If 
we  combine  the  first  and  third,  the  total  of  cities  represented  in 
the  rules  by  these  two  is  sixty. 

We  may  note  again  for  the  committee  on  finance  the  relative 
importance  of  the  work  mapped  out  for  this  committee.  A  purely 
routine  function,  examining  bills  and  accounts  of  expenditures 
already  made,  and  which  is  not  a  matter  of  very  grave  import- 
ance, occurs  as  often  as  such  an  important  duty  as  that  of  esti- 
mating the  annual  budget.  If  all  boards  had  an  adequate  con- 
ception of  the  requirements  of  budget  making,  less  time  and  atten- 
tion need  be  devoted  to  routine  details.  Through  a  thorough- 
going consideration  of  the  reports  of  receipts  and  expenditures 
and  the  condition  of  its  funds,  made  by  executive  officers,  the 
members  of  the  finance  committee  and  the  board  may  know  the 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  55 

exact  status  of  the  board's  financial  ability.  It  is  this,  after  all, 
which  it  needs  to  consider  when  voting  upon  new  policies.  For 
the  committee  to  consume  valuable  time  each  month  in  scrutinizing 
bills  of  expenditures  previously  authorized  and  made  and  which 
after  all  mean  nothing  until  summarized  in  adequate  statistical 
form,  is  to  deprive  itself  of  time  to  consider  adequately  financial 
policies. 

The  type  of  service  that  a  committee  on  finance  may  give  its 
board  was  previously  indicated  in  the  case  of  St.  Louis.  It  is  il- 
lustrated further  in  a  report  of  the  committee  on  finance  in  Pitts- 
burg.    It  reported  as  follows: 

■'Your  Committee  on  Finance,  after  two  months  of  careful  considera- 
tion of  the  budget  for  the  fiscal  year  .  .  .  and  after  considering  in  connec- 
tion therewith  the  financial  policies  which,  in  its  opinion,  should  character- 
ize the  administration  of  school  affairs  for  the  coming  year,  begs  to  re- 
port as  follows : 

1.  No  fundamental  increase  in  salaries  can  be  made  without  an  in- 
crease in  millage. 

2.  No  considerable  extension  of  manual  training  centers,  household 
economy  centers,  kindergarten,  or  of  other  school  activities  can 
be  undertaken  without  an  increase  in  millage. 

3.  No  program  for  the  replacement  of  old  buildings  or  for  substan- 
tial additions  thereto  can  be  undertaken  without  a  bond  issue. 

4.  Your  committee  is  of  the  opinion  that  a  just  consideration  for  the 
taxpayers  of  the  city  will  preclude  any  increase  in  the  millage,  and 
that  in  view  of  the  large  building  operations  under  way  and  in 
contemplation,  no  further  issue  of  bonds  should  be  made  at 
this  time. 

We  submit  on  these  various  propositions  the  following  for  your  con- 
sideration : 

Requests  made  for  schedule  increases  in  teachers'  salaries,  if  all  were 
granted,  would  increase  the  tax  rate  almost  one  mill  ...  A  very  thorough 
comparison  of  our  salary  schedule  with  that  of  other  cities  shows  that 
Pittsburg  ranks  well  ...  A  very  great  deal  of  attention  has  been  given 
to"  .  .  .  Manual  Training  and  Domestic  Science,  .  .  .  "and  to  the  exten- 
sion of  the  kindergarten  system  .  .  .  while  it  would  be  desirable  to  have 
centers  for  all  these  activities  in  each  building,  we  feel  that  the  policy  of 
the  board  during  the  coming  year  toward  these  and  all  other  ordinary 
school  activities  should  be  to  work  toward  a  maximum  of  efficiency  in 
the  administration  of  the  system  we  now  have  established,  rather  than  to 
make  material  extensions."  .  .  .  "we  would  not  have  been  content  to  make 
this  recommendation  two  years  ago,  but  since  that  time  unsafe  and  un- 


56     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

sanitary  buildings  have  been  made  safe  and  sanitary;  additional  teachers 
have  been  added  to  eliminate  overcrowding;  additional  high  school  ac- 
commodations have  been  provided ;  ungraded  rooms  have  been  opened ; 
principals  have  been  largely  relieved  of  clerical  duties ;  special  schools 
have  been  established;  closer  supervision  has  been  attained;  school  ad- 
vantages have  been  largely  equalized,  equipment  has  been  standardized, 
and  proper  provision  has  been  made  for  sinking  funds."  ^^ 

In  this  report  of  the  Pittsburg  finance  committee  we  note  that 
the  committee  has  devoted  its  time  to  large  questions  of  financial 
policy  and  not  to  administrative  details.  Its  weakness,  however, 
lies  in  a  possible  tendency  to  propose  policies  of  its  own,  and 
which  have  not  been  initiated  by  executive  officers. 

In  Table  IX  the  duties  which  are  most  deserving  of  attention 
among  those  found  in  the  rules  and  regulations  are :  the  annual 
budget,  reports  of  the  condition  of  the  board's  funds,  questions  of 
salary  changes,  and  matters  of  representing  the  board's  interests 
before  city  or  legislative  authorities.  If  the  board  requires  that 
its  chief  executive  submit  an  adequate  detailed  budget,  there  will 
be  little  need  of  further  supervision  of  finance  other  than  that  pre- 
viously indicated.  The  board  will  have  determined  its  financial 
policies  in  adopting  the  budget  and  since  it  will  know  precisely 
how  the  district's  funds  are  to  be  spent,  it  can  leave  the  actual 
spending  thereof  to  those  whom  it  employs  for  that  purpose. 

d.  The  Substitution  of  Committee  Policy  for  Board  Policy 

To  determine  accurately  to  what  extent  committee  policy  tends 
to  be  substituted  for  board  policy,  a  fact  which  such  investigators 
as  Moore,  Deffenbaugh,  and  Ballou  maintain,  would  require  a 
much  greater  amount  of  field  study  than  has  been  possible  in  the 
present  study.  However,  to  determine  in  some  measure  the  rel- 
ative importance  of  the  position  occupied  by  committees  in  de- 
termining board  policies  the  printed  minutes  of  three  meetings  for 
a  number  of  cities  were  selected.  The  cities  were  chosen  at  ran- 
dom from  those  having  committees,  whose  printed  proceedings 
were  received.  The  minutes  were  selected  at  intervals  of  at  least 
one  month.  The  number  of  pages  devoted  to  committee  reports 
and  the  total  number  of  pages  of  recorded  proceedings  are  given 
in  Table  X.     To  arrive  at  some  indication  as  to  what  extent  re- 

•*>  Pittsburg,  Minutes  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Jan.  20,  1914,  pp.  142-44. 


The  Board  and  its  Duties 


57 


ports  and  recommendations  of  committees  are  accepted  without 
amendment  or  division,  the  recorded  actions  on  reports,  recom- 
mendations, and  resolutions  offered  by  committees  were  noted. 
The  results,  omitting  votes  to  merely  receive  the  report,  are  given 
in  the  table. 


TABLE  X 

«4 

o 

a 
S 

** 

:^§ 

4-* 

•^ 

•s 

■g 

o 

13  •£ 

c« 

g 

V  bO 

>  o 

2 

rt  o 

o 

o 
U 

hoc 

?1 

S-2 

•^■2 
-S"^ 

*o 

V 

u 

6 

"a  o 

o2 

nl  O 

"So. 

c}  O 
C-O 

II 

(rt 

^ 

HCU 

PhU 

D< 

Chicago     .... 

21 

9 

210.5 

196 

16 

New  York   . . 

46 

15 

216 

150 

92 

1 

St.  Louis    . . . 

12 

4 

301 

22 

2 

Pittsburg    .  . . 

IS 

3 

274 

18 

18" 

Grand  Rapids 

9 

4 

69 

48 

50 

Worcester    . . 

30 

14 

30 

19.5 

4 

Newark     

9 

4 

67 

42 

Milwaukee    .  . 

15 

6 

134 

83 

23 

1 

Lancaster,  Pa. 

7 

6 

56 

36 

9 

Cleveland   .  . . 

7 

6 

30.5 

15.3 

56 

Jersey    City .  . 
Elizabeth    . . . 

9 

8 

37.  S 

22 

12 

9 

13 

30.3 

15.7 

13 

Reading    .... 

9 

4 

S6.S 

38 

9 

Kalamazoo   . . 

6 

3 

30.5 

15 

.5    Q        « 


g« 

O  V 

U« 

CO 

o  c 

m  << 

« 

<5  ri 

hi 

rd 

o  5< 

4> 

•a 

.Z  V 

> 

y. 

■T3  o 

o« 

o 

'3 

ft 
o 

■X) 

•a  E 

o-- 

k1 

< 

«; 

H6 
16 

6 

27 

1 

127 

17 

19 

3« 

8 

4 

35 

2 

1 

53 

2 

24 

1 

31 

60 

60 

1 

2 

32 

9 

18 

4 

60 

1 

10 

23 

3 

16 

2 

11 

19 

19 

Minutes  used  in  compiling  the  above 
Chicago:    11/24/15;   2/16/16;   5/24/16. 
New  York:   10/27/15;  12/8/15;  3/22/16. 
St.    Louis:    4/13/15;   7/13/15;    10/12/15. 
Pittsburg:    6/23/14;   9/22/14;    10/20/14. 
Gr.   Rapids:   6/7/15;   8/2/15;   10/4/15. 
Worcester:    6/1/15;    9/7/15;    11/2/15. 
Newark:   4/29/15;   7/29/15;   8/26/15. 


304 
data: 


1       15 


184 


8       520 


Milwaukee:   6/30/15;   9/7/15;   10/5/15. 
Lancaster:    1/6/16;    3/2/16;    5/4/16. 
Cleveland:    6/21/15;    8/30/15;    10/25/15. 
Jersey  City:  4/21/15;  6/16/15;  9/15/15. 
Elizabeth:   8/13/14;   12/10/14;   1/28/15. 
Reading:    5/19/14;    8/18/14;    11/17/14. 
Kalamazoo:   7/6/15;   9/7/15;    11/2/15. 


"  Includes   one   referred  to   executive   officer. 

•*  Eight    of    these    are    final    adoption    of    committees    reports    after    disposing    of 
items  seriatim. 

Objections  may  be  raised  that  the  number  of  pages  devoted  to 
committee  reports  is  not  fair  measure  of  the  relative  importance 
attached  to  committee  reports  and  recommendations.  Discus- 
sions are  not  recorded  while  routine  items  frequently  are.  For 
that  reason  a  crude  measure  as  this  must  be  discounted.  But 
even  allowing  liberally  for  the  preponderant  proportion  of  space 
devoted  to  committee  reports  in  such  a  city  as  Chicago,  when  we 
consider  certain  other  pertinent  factors,  there  appears  to  be  good 
evidence  that  in  this  city  at  least,  committee  policy  tends  to  be 
substituted  for  board  policy.     That  the  board  in  this  city  attempts 


58     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

to  pass  upon  a  large  volume  of  business  may  be  seen  by  reference 
to  the  minutes  themselves.  The  fact  that  all  committee  proposals 
for  three  months  can  be  disposed  of  without  amendment  in  six- 
teen recorded  actions  by  this  large  board  and  in  each  case  by  unan- 
imous vote  is  further  evidence  that  committee  policy  in  Chicago 
tends  to  be  substituted  for  board  policy.  A  marked  contrast  is 
to  be  noted  in  the  case  of  St.  Louis,  where  committee  reports  oc- 
cupied only  twenty-two  out  of  a  total  of  three  hundred  and  one 
pages.  St.  Louis,  as  noted  above,  restricts  its  committees  by  limit- 
ing them  to  an  advisory  capacity.  The  significant  reports  are 
presented  as  the  reports  of  executive  officers  and  not  as  committee 
reports. 

Unfortunately  a  considerable  number  of  actions  are  recorded 
only  as  "adopted."  These  are  presumably  those  on  which  no  roll 
call  was  taken.  In  many  cases  actions  are  recorded  as  "adopted" 
on  matters  of  routine  or  which  involve  no  expenditures.  The 
small  number  of  cases  in  which  divisions,  amendments  or  rejec- 
tions occurred  may  be  seen  from  the  table.  Only  in  Milwaukee 
and  Pittsburg  do  committee  reports  appear  to  be  seriously  ques- 
tioned. 

e.  Summary  on  Committees 

As  far  as  we  have  approached  a  solution  of  the  committee 
problem  through  these  committees  it  appears  (1)  that  committee 
action  may  in  the  main  take  two  general  directions.  It  may  be 
(a)  chiefly  administrative,  either  in  the,  absence  of  a  full  corps 
of  executive  officers  or  irrespective  of  them  and  contrary  to 
principles  of  good  business  administration;  or  (b)  chiefly  advisory 
and  supporting,  aflFording  the  benefit  of  group  judgment  to  execu- 
tive officers  and  placing  at  their  service  such  business  administra- 
tive ability  as  its  members  possess  in  order  that  all  of  the  execu- 
tive or  professional  skill  within  the  system  may  coordinate  at  a 
maxium  of  efficiency.  Whether  the  latter  position  shall  be  taken 
will  depend  somewhat  on  the  specific  provisions  of  the  rules  in 
prescribing  committee  duties.  It  appears  (2)  that  there  is  little 
agreement  among  boards  as  to  what  duties  shall  be  assigned  to 
these  committees;  (3)  that  there  is  little  if  any  evidence  from  the 
findings  with  respect  to  committee  duties  of  a  conception  among 
boards  of  relative  importance  of  the  duties  which  should  claim 


The  Board  and  its  Duties  59 

the  time  and  attention  of  committees.  Finally  it  appears  (4) 
that  committee  action  may  develop  particularly  among  large 
boards  into  an  arrangement  for  mere  convenience  wherein  a  com- 
mittee tends  to  become  a  separate  entity  for  attending  to  a  par- 
ticular phase  of  the  board's  own  duties  and  whereby  committee 
policy  tends  to  be  substituted  for  board  policy.  This  was  noted 
in  the  case  of  the  building  committee.  The  problem  is  then,  to 
conserve  whatever  advantage  there  is  to  be  had  in  committee'  ac- 
tion making  for  more  efficient  administration  of  the  system.  It 
is  to  conserve  whatever  business  ability  its  members  may  bring  to 
the  assistance  of  executive  officers  in  formulating  and  executing 
policies,  without  interfering  with  or  preventing  the  full  operation 
of  the  professional  ability  of  the  chief  executive  and  his  as- 
sistants. 

5.  Summary 

The  problem  for  boards  of  education  as  indicated  by  the  data 
we  have  presented  in  this  chapter  is  one  of  finding  its  own  proper 
functions.  It  is  one  of  finding  what  functions  should  be  dele- 
gated to  the  professional  chief  executive  and  his  assistants  and 
which  functions  are  most  important  for  a  lay  board  to  perform 
and  most  deserving  of  its  time  and  effort. 

The  duties  performed  by  lay  boards  in  practice  extend  over  a 
wide  range.  They  undertake  to  act  upon  matters  which  are  pro- 
fessional and  administrative  in  character  as  well  as  upon  matters 
which  are  of  vital  importance  for  a  board  of  education  to  per- 
form. A  large  amount  of  work  is  attempted  and  an  undue 
amount  of  time  is  frequently  devoted  to  unimportant  and  ad- 
ministrative matters.  As  a  result  of  such  procedure  there  is  a 
tendency  to  disregard  the  professional  aspects  of  educational 
leadership.  The  reports  demanded  of  the  chief  executive  and  his 
assistants  are  commonly  not  of  the  kind  which  enable  a  board  to 
pass  intelligently  upon  school  policies.  Few  boards  require  as  a 
basis  for  legislation  that  accurate,  detailed,  objective  data  shall  be 
presented  by  executive  officers.  They  neglect  the  opportunity  to 
hold  the  executive  officers  responsible  for  results  through  the 
medium  of  adequate  reports  of  the  achievements  of  the  school 
system.  They  frequently  resort  to  committee  procedure  not  so 
much  from  well  considered  necessity  as  from  the  facts :  ( 1 )  that 


60     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

the  board  has  not  formed  a  clear  conception  (a)  that  administra- 
tive functions  should  be  performed  by  the  chief  executive  officer 
and  his  assistants  and  (b)  that  its  own  function  is  to  provide  the 
legislation  necessary  for  the  successful  administration  of  the 
school  system;  (2)  that  the  board  fails  to  demand  data  adequate 
enough  to  enable  it  to  pass  upon  school  policies;  and  (3)  that  the 
membership  of  the  board  is  too  large.  They  commonly  fail  to 
prescribe  definitely  that  the  function  of  a  committee  is  to  serve 
in  an  advisory  capacity  to  the  chief  executive  and  his  assistants 
with  the  result  that  we  find  committees  engaged  in  administrative 
matters  and  recommending  policies  which  are  allowed  to  become 
board  policies  without  due  consideration. 

The  duties  which  in  the  opinion  of  75  per  cent  of  the  531 
competent  judges  are  least  important  for  a  board  to  perform  and 
which  in  the  opinion  of  many  judges  should  not  be  performed 
are:  (1)  visiting  the  schools,  observing  or  investigating  the  ef- 
ficiency of  instruction,  (2)  hearing  communications  on  matters  of 
administration  or  policy,  and  (3)  acting  as  a  court  of  appeal  for 
teachers,  supervisors  and  patrons.  The  duties  which  are  among 
the  most  important  for  a  board  to  perform  have  to  do  with  such 
matters  as  (1)  passing  upon  the  annual  budget  prepared  by  the 
chief  executive  and  his  assistants,  (2)  debating  and  passing  upon 
the  recommendations  of  the  chief  executive  for  additional  capital 
outlays  and  the  means  of  financing  them,  (3)  advising  with  the 
chief  executive  to  afford  him  a  group  judgment  on  his  recom- 
mendations for  extensions  or  readjustments  of  the  scope  of  edu- 
cational activities,  (4)  appointing  teachers,  principals  and  super- 
visors only  upon  nomination  and  recommendation  of  the  chief 
executive.  Its  most  important  single  duty  is  to  select  the  chief 
executive  officer  and  support  him  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  ADMINISTRATIVE  ORGANIZATION 

The  particular  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  consider  the  pro- 
vision made  by  boards  of  education  for  centering  authority  and 
responsibihty  in  the  hands  of  the  chief  executive,  i.e.,  the  superin- 
tendent, and  his  assistants.     The  principle  of  giving  to  the  chief 
executive  officer  a  wide  range  of  authority  is  commonly  accepted 
among  careful  students  of  administration  as  a  cardinal  principle 
of  good  administration.     Our  interest  will  be  to  see  how  far  this 
principle  is  carried  in  school  administration  as  indicated  by  the 
rules  and  regulations.     Since  this  principle  is  not  peculiar  alone 
to  school  administration,  attention  will  be  given  to  administrative 
organization  as  provided  by  boards  of  directors  of  some  success- 
ful business  concerns  and  as  provided  in  the  rapidly  developing 
city-manager  type  of  commission  government.     The  intent  is  to 
discover  the  lesson  that  successful  administration  in  these  fields 
holds  for  boards  of  education.     A  second  principle,  that  of  fixing 
responsibility  in  the  chief  executive,  has  been  treated  to  some  ex- 
tent in  the  preceding  chapter.     A  third  principle  of  administra- 
tion which  may  be  borne  in  mind  throughout  the  study  maintains 
that  new  policies  shall  be  proposed  by  the  chief  executive  and  his 
assistants.     All  of  these  principles  are  based  upon  the  facts,  (1) 
that  successful  performance  of  executive  functions  is  a  matter  re- 
quiring professional  training  and  skill,  (2)  that  the  public  is  inter- 
ested primarily  in  getting  results,  and  (3)  that  having  selected  ex- 
ecutives possessed  of  adequate  professional  ability  to  perform  the 
actual  work  of  administration,  any  undue  restriction  which  pre- 
vents the  chief  executive  officer  and  his  assistants  from  employing 
such  professional  knowledge  is  economic  waste.     With  these  prin- 
ciples of  administration  definitely  before  us  we  may  attempt  to  an- 
swer a  few  specific  problems.     Does  the  authority  given  the  super- 
intendent as  the  board's  chief  executive  officer  prevent  him  from 
being  the  real  leader  of  the  community  in  matters  of  education  ? 

61 


62     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Must  he  depend  upon  the  whims  and  inaccurate  judgment  of 
others  to  secure  execution  of  policies  which  his  professional  judg- 
ment deems  best  for  the  community?  Is  he  the  actual  head  of 
the  school  system,  or  are  there  several  distinct  heads,  and  what 
are  some  effects  of  such  arrangements  ?  It  is  interesting  to  know 
whether  the  chief  executive  is  given  power  to  control  and  direct 
the  head  of  the  business  or  other  departments.* 

1.  Need  of  Considering  Administrative  Organization 

To  give  the  reader  some  conception  of  the  need  of  considering 
the  question  of  centralizing  administrative  organization  let  us 
consider  for  example,  the  matter  of  school  buildings.  Is  the 
board  of  education  which  makes  its  building  department  inde- 
pendent of  the  educational  department  certain  that  buildings  will 
be  constructed  to  meet  commonly  accepted  standards  of  health, 
safety,  convenience  and  educational  need?  How  does  it  know 
that  new  buildings  will  be  adapted  to  the  conception  of  education 
underlying  the  work  of  the  school  as  revealed  in  the  number  and 
kind  of  activities  to  be  undertaken,  the  subjects  to  be  taught,  the 
method  and  spirit  of  teaching,  the  general  organization  and  ad- 
ministration of  the  schools  and  the  system  of  which  it  is  a  part  ?  * 
How  does  it  know  that  adequate  account  is  being  taken  both  in 
the  form  and  location  of  buildings,  of  the  probable  number  of 
school  children  to  be  accommodated,  that  the  location  of  each  is 
such  as  will  provide  standard  conditions  of  physical  and  social 
environment?  Is  it  certain  that  each  building  is  being  so  located 
and  constructed  as  to  provide  standard  lighting  conditions  for 
the  children  without  danger  of  injury  to  their  eyes?  Does  it 
know  whether  corridors  and  stairways  will  be  standardized  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  safety  and  convenience  in  movement  of 
the  children  without  waste  of  space;  that  service  systems,  such 

*  In  this  study  a  system  in  which  the  superintendent  is  made  the  re- 
sponsible head  of  all  departments,  instruction,  building,  business,  etc.,  the 
head  through  whom  all  departments  are  coordinated,  will  be  designated 
as  having  a  centralized  or  coordinated  type  of  organization.  A  system 
having  its  different  department  heads  independent  of  each  other  or  prac- 
tically so,  a  system  in  which  each  department  executive  head  is  responsible 
directly  to  the  board  and  not  to  the  superintendent,  will  be  spoken  of  as 
having  a  divided  or  uncoordinated  form  of  administrative  organization. 
The  term  decentralized  may  also  be  applied  to  this  form. 

1  See  brief  on  School  Buildings  by  Gambrill,  Theisen,  and  Woody, 
Dept.  of  Educational  Administration,  Teachers  College  (unpublished). 


The  Administrative  Organization  63 

as  heating  and  ventilating,  artificial  lighting,  water  supply  and 
toilet  facilities,  will  be  constructed  to  meet  the  requirements  for 
comfort,  convenience,  health  and  study  for  all  who  are  to  be  ac- 
commodated? Is  it  certain  that  class  rooms  will  be  placed  with 
due  regard  for  the  educational  activities  to  be  served ;  that  they 
will  be  of  such  size  as  will  provide  standard  floor  and  air  space 
for  each  child ;  that  they  will  be  constructed  with  due  regard  for 
facilitating  control  of  such  matters  as  cloakrooms,  for  minfmiz- 
ing  dangers  of  distractions  from  noises ;  that  they  will  be  finished 
in  colors  that  facilitate  proper  lighting;  that  their  permanent 
equipment  will  be  of  such  quality  and  size  and  so  arranged  as  to 
meet  the  needs  of  health  and  good  instruction,  e.g.,  placing  black- 
boards within  reach  of  the  children;  that  rooms  for  special  activi- 
ties will  be  arranged  with  respect  to  the  requirements  of  the  ac- 
tivity to  be  undertaken  whether  it  be  auditorium,  administrative 
offices,  commercial  rooms,  drawing  rooms,  gymnasium,  house- 
hold arts  rooms,  industrial  arts  rooms,  laboratories,  libraries, 
lunch  rooms,  music  rooms,  open  air  class  rooms,  science  rooms  or 
shops?  Surely  no  one  would  deny  that  the  building  department 
exists  for  the  purpose  of  satisfying  the  needs  of  the  educational 
department.  These  are  factors  that  a  board  may  well  consider 
when  selecting  and  fixing  the  responsibility  of  its  superintendent 
of  buildings.  They  apply  scarcely  less  to  the  voter  who  may  be 
asked  to  cast  his  ballot  for  or  against  a  city  charter  which  would 
still  further  divorce  the  school  building  department  from  the 
educational  department  by  placing  the  control  of  school  buildings 
with  other  city  departments  as  in  Schenectady,  or  until  recently 
in  Boston. 

The  board  which  divorces  its  business  department  from  its  edu- 
cational department,  as  do  the  boards  in  Cleveland,  Boston, 
Indianapolis,  and  Terre  Haute,  may  do  well  to  consider  the  pos- 
sible effects  of  such  separation.  What  assurance  is  there  that 
standards  for  school  supplies  will  be  such  as  permit  good  teach- 
ing; that  the  quality  and  kind  of  paper  for  writing  and  drawing, 
the  materials  for  manual,  industrial  and  household  arts,  kinder- 
garten or  laboratories,  are  such  as  will  permit  good  teaching  re- 
sults? The  proper  selection  of  such  materials  requires  an  under- 
standing of  the  educational  activities  for  which  they  are  intended, 
yet  what  is  there  to  prevent  the  business  agent  in  Boston  or  the 


64     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

business  director  in  Terre  Haute  from  seriously  interfering  with 
the  selection  of  any  kind  of  materials  required  by  the  educational 
department  ?  If  the  superintendent  in  Boston  desired  that  kinder- 
gartens be  conducted  according  to  modern  theories  of  child  learn- 
ing as  opposed  to  the  outgrown  Froebelian  ideas,  what  is  there 
to  prevent  the  business  agent  from  refusing  to  permit  the  neces- 
sary change  in  the  kind  of  materials  except  a  special  action  by 
the  board?  If  the  "Director  of  Schools,"  as  the  business  director 
in  Cleveland  is  called,  took  steps  to  close  summer  play-grounds 
because  he  thought  the  children  were  breaking  too  many  windows, 
the  superintendent  would  have  no  authority  to  stop  him.  Such 
interference  is  not  unknown  among  the  cities  of  the  study  having 
a  decentralized  organization.^  The  proposed  Boston  rules  per- 
mit such  independence  as  follows : 

"Requisitions  for  books,  printing,  postage,  fuel  and  materials  of  every 
description  required  for  use  by  any  officer  or  in  any  school  or  department 
shall  be  subject  to  his^  approval.  .  .  .  He  shall  fill  such  requisitions  as  he 
shall  approve  within  the  limits  of  the  appropriations  made  therefore."  * 

The  rules  of  Terre  Haute  provide  that 

"He  shall  refuse  to  fill  any  requisition,  if  he  deem  the  same  unwise  or 
unnecessary  .  .  .  and  shall  give  his  reason  in  writing  for  such  refusal." ' 

A  Striking  instance  of  divided  responsibility  is  found  both  in 
Indianapolis  and  Terre  Haute  in  the  matter  of  the  budget.  In 
neither  of  these  cities  does  the  board  give  to  the  superintendent 
any  authority  in  the  making  of  the  budget.  Both  entrust  this  im- 
portant function  to  the  business  director.  The  rules  of  Indianap- 
olis read : 

"The  director  shall  prepare  and  submit  to  the  board  not  later  than  at  its 
first  regular  meeting  in  August  his  estimates  of  the  receipts  and  ex- 
penditures for  the  fiscal  year  to  end  on  the  30th  day  of  June  following, 
with  his  recommendations  as  to  the  levy  to  be  made  for  taxes."  « 

The  rules  of  Terre  Haute  on  this  point  specify  as  follows : 

2  For  corroboration  on  this  point  see :  "Report  of  a  study  of  certain 
phases  of  the  Public  School  System  of  Boston,  Mass."     (Published  1916.) 

8  Italics — author's. 

*  "Rules  of  the  School  Committee  and  Regulations  of  the  Public 
Schools"  (proposed),  1915. 

"  Manual,  1914,  Art.  HI,  Sec.  p. 

"  Indianapolis :   Manual  and  Rules,  1911,  Art.  VI,  Sec.  16. 


The  Administrative  Organisation  65 

"He  shall  make  a  recommendation  in  writing  on  all  matters  brought  to 
the  board  by  his  department  and  on  all  matters  involving  an  expenditure 
of  money  except  for  salaries.  Before  the  beginning  of  each  fiscal  year  he 
shall  prepare  an  estimate  of  expenses  for  all  departments  for  the  ensuing 
year,  and  he  shall  recommend  the  tax  levy."  ^ 

The  proposed  Boston  rules  entrench  the  business  agent  eren 
more  firmly.  After  prescribing  the  report  of  expenditures,  etc., 
to  be  made,  this  statement  is  made : 

"He  shall  include  in  these  reports  such  recommendations  tending  to  a 
more  economical  expenditure  of  appropriations  as  he  may  deem  ex- 
pedient." 8 

"He  shall  consider  and  report  upon  any  proposition  relating  to  an  ex- 
tension of  or  a  change  in  the  school  system  involving  additional  expense, 
or  a  contemplated  expenditure  for  which  provision  has  not  been  made  in 
the  annual  appropriation  order  .  .  ."  ^ 

What  changes  of  any  importance  do  not  involve  some  expendi- 
ture? 

In  Cleveland  the  director  as  far  as  any  rule  to  the  contrary  is 
concerned  is  absolutely  independent  of  any  control  by  the 
superintendent.^" 

What  more  effective  means  could  be  used  to  remove  the  busi- 
ness director  from  the  control  of  the  superintendent  than  to  give 
him  such  powers  as  do  these  cities  in  matters  of  the  budget? 
What  assurance  have  the  boards  of  education  in  these  cities  that 
the  latent  professional  skill  paid  for  in  the  salary  of  the  superin- 
tendent as  chief  executive  will  be  given  the  opportunity  to  operate 
at  its  maxium  ability ;  that  the  skill  which  can  direct  expenditures 
so  that  they  shall  promote  the  best  educational  welfare  of  the 
children  shall  be  utilized  ?  It  is  quite  plain  that  these  boards  are 
providing  rules  which  make  it  unlikely  that  the  professional  prep- 
aration and  training  of  their  superintendent  will  be  fully  utilized. 

Let  us  consider  briefly  organization  within  the  educational  de- 
partment for  cities  that  do  not  provide  a  single  responsible  head. 
If  the  superintendent  is  not  made  the  single  responsible  head,  as 
he  is  not  in  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  or  Baltimore,  who  is 

top.  cit.,  Art.  III.  Sec.  1. 

«  Op.  cit.  Chap.  V,  Sec.  98. 

»  Op.  cit.  Chap.  V,  Sec.  101. 

1°  Cleveland :   Rules  Governing  the  Board  of  Education,  1915. 


66     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

to  be  held  responsible  for  the  success  of  the  system?  In  each  of 
these  cities  a  board  of  superintendents  is  found.  Odd  as  it  may 
seem,  even  though  the  superintendent  may  have  control  over  each 
assistant  superintendent  as  an  individual,  the  board  of  superin- 
tendents, composed  of  the  assistant  superintendents  and  the 
superintendent,  may  out  vote  and  overrule  him.  The  rules  of 
Baltimore  provide: 

"Wherever  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  his  assistants 
are  in  doubt  what  course  to  pursue,  they  shall  ask  instructions  from  the 
school  commissioners,  to  whom  they  may  present  a  majority  and  a  minority 
report,  and  the  decision  of  the  board  of  school  commissioners  shall  be 
final.  He  shall  have  the  right  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  majority  of 
the  board  of  superintendents  to  suspend  any  teacher."  ^^ 

The  proposed  Boston  rules  which  according  to  the  recent  sur- 
vey report  of  Boston  ^^  represent  present  practice  in  that  city 
read  as  follows : 

"The  superintendent  shall  be  the  executive  officer  of  the  board  in  all 
matters  relating  to  instruction  and  discipline  in  the  schools.  .  .  .  He  shall 
be  chairman  of  the  board  of  superintendents,  and  shall  assign  to  each  as- 
sistant superintendent  such  duties  as  he  may  deem  best,  and  may  delegate 
to  or  recall  from  any  one  or  more  assistant  superintendents  any  part  of 
his  authority  except  such  as  relates  to  the  appointment,  reappointment, 
assignment,  promotion,  transfer,  suspension,  or  removal  of  teachers  and 
members  of  the  supervising  staff;  to  the  approval  of  plans  of  school  build- 
ings ;  and  to  recommendations  to  the  board,  or  other  relations  with  it."  i' 

But  note  how  the  seeming  authority  of  the  superintendent  is 
annulled  even  in  the  department  of  instruction : 

"The  board  of  superintendents  shall  give  written  opinions  on  any 
question  when  so  required  by  the  superintendent,  the  board,  or  any  sub- 
committee thereof ;  and  may  present  to  the  board  recommendations  on  its 
own  initiative.  The  board  of  superintendents  shall  approve  books  of  ref- 
erence and  educational  material  used  in  the  schools,  except  dictionaries, 
cyclopedias  and  atlases,  in  accordance  with  the  regulations.  The  board 
of  superintendents  shall  conduct  examinations  of  candidates  for  certificates 
for  qualification  as  teachers  .  .  .  and  prepare  and  adopt  the  questions  to 
be  used  at  such  examinations."  i* 

11  Baltimore :   Rules  of  the  Board  of  School  Commissioners,  1913. 

12  Boston :  Report  of  a  Study  of  Certain  Phases  of  the  Public  School 
System,  1916. 

13  Rules  of  the  School  Committee  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools 
(proposed),  1915,  Chap.  Ill,  Sec.  55,  57. 

i*/6jU,  IV,  Sec.  66,  68,  70. 


The  Administrative  Organization  67 

Since  no  permanent  appointments  of  teachers  or  supervisors 
can  be  made  except  from  the  three  highest  on  the  eligible  list  will- 
ing to  accept  ^'  the  board  of  superintendents  has  control  of  the  ap- 
pointment of  teachers. 

The  by-laws  of  Philadelphia  provide : 

"The  board  of  superintendents  shall  recommend  to  the  board  of 
public  education,  or  to  the  proper  committee:  (a)  Changes  in  the -grad- 
ing of  schools,   (b)  The  adoption  and  modifications  of  courses  of  study. 

"The  board  of  superintendents  shall  recommend  to  the  board  of  public 
education,  or  to  the  proper  committee,  the  location  of  new  school  build- 
ings, the  repairs  to  and  enlargement  of  present  buildings,  and  the  change 
of  teachers  from  one  grade  to  another  in  schools  where  such  changes 
would  be  of  advantage. 

"The  board  of  superintendents  shall  conduct  the  examination  of  can- 
didates for  the  various  teachers'  certificates  (other  than  those  granted 
to  graduates  of  the  normal  school  and  the  School  of  Pedagogy),  pro- 
vided for  by  the  board  of  public  education,  and  shall  prepare  the  eligible 
lists  of  candidates  to  be  kept  in  the  superintendent's  office."  ^^ 

In  New  York  the  authority  of  the  board  of  superintendents  is 
indicated  by  the  following: 

"Associate  city  superintendents  shall  be  assigned  to  duty  by  the  city 
superintendent,  and  shall  perform  such  duties  as  he  may  direct.  .  .  .  Sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  board  of  education,  the  board  of  superin- 
tendents shall  make  rules  and  regulations  for  the  admission  of  pupils  to 
the  schools,  for  their  promotion  and  graduation,  and  for  their  transfer 
from  one  school  to  another. 

"The  board  of  superintendents  shall  recommend  to  the  board  of  edu- 
cation, when  necessary  or  advisable,  text-books,  apparatus  and  other 
scholastic  supplies,  and  shall  report  to  the  board  of  education  in  reference 
to  changes  in  the  grades  of  schools  or  classes,  and  in  reference  to  the 
adoption  or  modification  of  courses  of  study. 

"The  board  of  superintendents  shall,  from  time  to  time,  issue  syllabuses 
in  the  various  branches  taught,  which  shall  be  regarded  as  the  minimum 
amount  of  work  required  in  such  branches."  ^^ 

Unfortunately  certain  powers  are  conferred  upon  the  board 
of  superintendents  by  the  city  charter.^^ 

15/&1W.,  IV,  Sec.  87. 

16  Philadelphia :  Handbook,  The  Board  of  Education,  1914,  containing 
By-Laws,  1911,  III,  Sec.  30,  31,  ZZ. 

'^''  New  York :  Manual  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Sec.  40. 

18  New  York :  Educational  Chapter  of  the  Revised  New  York  City  Char- 
ter, Sec.  1090. 


68     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

"Principals,  branch  principals,  heads  of  departments,  teachers,  assistants 
and  all  other  members  of  the  teaching  staff,  shall  be  appointed  by  the 
board  of  education  on  the  nomination  of  the  board  of  superintendents 
.  .  .  Teachers  and  principals  may  be  promoted  or  transferred  from  one 
school  to  any  other  school  within  the  city  by  the  board  of  superintendents, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  board  of  education  .  .  ." 

With  a  board  of  superintendents  independent  of  and  overruling 
the  superintendent  we  have  the  district  paying  twice  for  one  re- 
sult. It  pays  the  superintendent  a  salary  for  professional  ser- 
vice presumably  to  fill  the  position  of  chief  executive  and  at  the 
same  time  it  is  devoting  part  of  the  salary  paid  to  assistant 
superintendents  to  the  payment  of  their  services  in  performing 
functions  for  which  the  superintendent  is  already  being  paid.  It 
may  be  argued  that  their  salary  is  for  service  as  assistant  superin- 
tendents but  nevertheless  a  part  of  their  time  is  devoted  to  ser- 
vice as  members  of  the  board  of  superintendents  and  a  part  of 
their  salaries  must  be  considered  as  paying  for  services  as  mem- 
bers of  this  board. 

Again,  if  the  nomination  of  the  supervisors,  principals,  and 
teachers,  or  such  matters  as  the  initiative  in  changes  of  text- 
books, courses  of  study,  or  the  kind  of  supplies  which  shall  make 
them  conform  more  nearly  to  the  requirements  of  the  educational 
ideals  of  the  school,  do  not  rest  with  the  chief  executive,  can  he 
be  held  responsible  for  the  success  of  the  system?  Is  the  board 
making  full  use  of  his  services?  Certainly  not.  True,  the  plac- 
ing of  all  of  the  responsibilities  so  far  enumerated  upon  the  super- 
intendent does  not  insure  the  best  results  in  every  instance.  But 
in  the  last  analysis,  whether  just  or  unjust,  the  community  looks 
to  its  superintendent  of  schools  as  the  one  responsible  for  the  edu- 
cational welfare  of  its  children.  This  emphasizes  all  the  more 
and  helps  to  explain  the  fact  that  the  selection  of  the  superin- 
tendent is  considered  by  competent  judges  as  a  board's  most  im- 
portant duty. 

2.  Types  of  Administrative  Organization 

The  administrative  organization  of  the  cities  of  this  study  may 
be  divided  into  types.  At  one  extreme  we  have  a  completely 
centralized  or  coordinated  organization  represented  by  Minne- 


The  Administrative  Organization 


69 


apoHs,  as  shown  in  Chart  I  ^^  and  at  the  other  extreme  a 
thoroughly  divided  or  uncoordinated  organization  represented  by 
Boston,  Chart  II.  Between  these  extremes  we  find  a  group  of 
cities  whose  organization  is  centralized  only  in  certain  features. 
The  two  charts  may  be  considered  as  portraying  fairly  typical 
forms  of  organization  found  among  the  one  hundred  cities  whose 
rules  and  regulations  were  examined.     It  may  be  noted,  however. 


MnntATOti*  PutK  School  SoTin 


Chart  I 
that  Boston  is  lacking  in  one  respect  of  being  truly  typical  in  that 
the  board  has  no  committees. 

Before  considering  school  administrative  organization  in  detail 
it  may  be  well  to  call  attention  again  to  the  administrative 
principles  mentioned  in  the  early  part  of  this  chapter: 

1.  That  the  chief  executive  officer  (referring  throughout 
this  study  to  the  superintendent)  should  be  given  a  wide 
range  of  authority  over  all  departments  of  the  system. 

*^  In  all  charts  used  in  this  study,  slant  and  vertical  lines  indicate  con- 
trol emanating  from  the  higher  position.  Horizontal  lines  indicate  a 
cooperative  relation. 


70     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 


The  Administrative  Organization  71 

2.  That  responsibility  for  results  should  be  fixed  in  the 
chief  executive. 

3.  That  the  initiative  in  new  policies  shall  come  from  the 
chief  executive  and  his  assistants. 

Except  only  in  so  far  as  business  organizations  and  city  govern- 
ment are  treated  in  this  chapter  only  the  first  will  be  treated  ex- 
tensively here.  This  first  principle  is  a  thesis  of  all  careful 
students  of  administration.  It  asserts  that  the  chief  executive 
§hould  have  control  and  direction  over  the  heads  of  departments 
in  their  duties  and  that  his  approval  shall  be  necessary  in  all  im- 
portant matters.  The  student  therefore  may  approach  a  study 
of  the  administrative  organization  of  any  system  with  such  ques- 
tions as  these :  "What  authority  has  the  chief  executive  ?  What 
control  has  he  over  other  officers  and  employees  of  the  system? 
Over  what  aspects  of  their  work  has  he  control?"  Not  all  of 
this  can  be  shown-on  a  simple  diagram  of  control  relations,  nor 
can  organization  charts  be  shown  for  all  of  the  cities.  Accord- 
ingly, the  one  hundred  cities  whose  rules  and  regulations  were  ex- 
amined are  placed  in  groups,  each  city  being  placed  in  that  group 
to  which  its  organization  most  closely  corresponds.  Table  XL  A 
number  of  the  cities  are  comparatively  small  cities  that  have  not 
felt  the  need  of  providing  several  departments  with  separate 
heads  for  each.  In  a  few  cases  the  data  were  not  sufficient  to 
warrant  classification.  The  line  of  demarcation  between  groups 
cannot  always  be  sharply  drawn.  With  these  considerations  we 
may  turn  our  attention  to  the  cities  classified  in  Table  XL 

Minneapolis,  of  the  first  group,  shown  diagrammatically  in 
Chart  I,  as  previously  stated  has  complete  centralization  or-  co- 
ordination of  departments  through  the  chief  executive.  The 
head  of  the  business  department  is  made  assistant  superintendent 
in  charge  of  business  affairs.  The  assistant  secretary  who  per- 
forms the  real  duties  of  clerk  or  secretary  is  made  secretary  to 
the  superintendent  and  is  placed  under  the  superintendent's  di- 
rection. The  departments  of  attendance  and  hygiene  are  likewise 
under  his  direction.  Since  the  present  study  was  undertaken,  an- 
other large  city,  Denver,^^  has  adopted  this  type  of  organization 
and  is  placed  in  the  first  group.  Of  the  remaining  cities  in  this 
group,    seven,    namely:    Brookline,    Mass.,    Lockport,    N.    Y., 

22  Denver :    By-Laws  adopted  Jan.  12,  1916. 


72     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 


TABLE  XI 
Form  of  Organization 


Centralized 

or 
Coordinated 

Norwalk,    Conn. 
Waltham,   Mass. 
Minneapolis 
Denver 

Evansville,    Ind. 
Brookline,   Mass. 
Joliet,   111. 
Lockport,  N.  Y." 
Charleston,  S.   C.*> 
Holyoke,  Mass.^ 
Lawrence,    Mass.** 
Fremont,  Nebr. 
Winchester,  Mass." 
Newburyp't,  Mass.*" 


Centralized 
in    Part 


New    Orleans 
Bridgeport,   Conn. 
Fort  Worth 
Moline,    111. 
Topeka  " 
Beverley,   Mass. 
Waterbury,  Conn. 
Philadelphia 
Joplin,   Mo. 
Worcester,   Mass. 
Manchester,  N.  H. 


Simple 
Organization 


Wausau,  Wis. 
Laramie,  Wyo. 
Lead,  S.   D. 
Winston  Salem,  N.C. 
Cape    Girardeau 
Greeley,  Colo. 
Calumet,   Mich. 
Lebanon,  Pa. 
Central  Falls,  R.  I. 
Westport,  Mass. 
Pine  Bluffs,  Ark. 
Fort  Smith,  Arkr. 
Montgomery,   Ala. 
Freeport,  N.   Y. 
Fargo,  N.  D. 
Milton,  Mass. 
West  Point,  Nebr. 
Pierce,  Nebr. 
Cortland,  N.  Y. 
Portland,  Me. 


Insufficient  data 

Houston 
Nashville 
Seattle 

Pittsfield,   Mass. 
Wakefield,   Mass. 


*•  Superintendent  is  also   secretary  or 
"  Cooperative   relation    only    between 
tendent. 


Divided 

or 

Uncoordinated 

Chester,  Pa. 
Cleveland 
Akron,   Ohio 
New  York 
Salt   Lake    City 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
St.   Louis 
Yonkers,   N.   Y. 
Detroit 
Rochester 
Fall  River,  Mass. 
Syracuse 
Newton,   Mass. 
Baltimore 
New  Haven 
Boston 

Covington,   Ky. 
Louisville 
vSan  Francisco 
Cedar  Rapids,  la. 
St.  Joseph,  Mo. 
New  Brunswick,  N.J. 
Elgin,   111. 
Spokane 
Cnicago 
Providence 
Sioux  City      ' 
Pawtucket,   R.  I. 
Portland,  Ore. 
Terre  Haute 
Richmond,  Va. 
Columbus,  Ohio 
Omaha 

Lincoln,   Nebr. 
Indianapolis 
Brockton,    Mass. 
Harrisburg 
Schenectady 
Everett,   Wash. 
Oakland,  Cal. 
Boulder,   Colo. 
Wichita 

Johnstown,  Pa. 
Charlotte,  N.  C. 
Columbia,   S.   C. 
Racine,   Wis. 
Newport,  Ky. 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Middleton,  N.  Y. 

clerk.  "■ 

superintendent    of    buildings    and    superin- 


The  Administrative  Organisation  73 

Holyoke,  Mass.,  Lawrence,  Mass.,  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Waltham, 
Mass.,  Winchester,  Mass.,  make  the  superintendent  clerk  or 
secretary  of  the  board  in  addition  to  his  usual  duties.  In  Holyoke 
this  additional  duty  is  placed  upon  him  by  charter  provision. 
Such  arrangement  is  evidently  facilitated  by  the  Massachusetts 
State  Law : 

"The  superintendent  .  .  .  shall  assist  the  school  committee  in  keeping 
its  records  and  accounts,  and  in  making  such  reports  required  by  law."  ^3 

That  an  arrangement  whereby  the  superintendent  performs 
both  functions  is  not  unusual  among  smaller  cities  may  be  seen 
from  Deffenbaugh's  study.^*  He  reports  119  cities  out  of  799 
as  making  such  provision. 

This  double  function  of  the  superintendent  in  the  cities  just 
noted  suggests  a  matter  of  more  than  passing  interest  which  may 
be  inserted  parenthetically  at  this  point.  In  smaller  cities  the 
work  commonly  assigned  to  separate  departments  is  frequently 
given  over  to  committees  of  the  board  of  education  or,  again,  a 
member  of  the  board  fills  the  position  of  secretary.  Placing  be- 
side this  condition  the  arrangement  noted  above  where  the 
superintendent  fills  both  the  position  of  superintendent  and  of 
secretary  or  clerk,  we  may  see  what  is  possibly  the  evolutionary 
stages  of  both  the  centralized  and  the  divided  or  uncoordinated 
forms  of  administrative  organization.  A  logical  succession  to 
administration  of  a  department  by  a  committee  of  the  board,  as 
in  the  case  of  buildings,  is  a  salaried  executive  officer  in  charge 
of  the  department,  independent  of  the  superintendent.  Or  again, 
if  a  member  of  the  board  fills  the  office  of  secretary,  as  the  amount 
of  work  to  be  done  develops,  a  salaried  official,  not  a  member  of 
the  board,  may  be  placed  in  charge  of  the  business  affairs  of  the 
board.  He  may  or  may  not  be  independent  of  the  superintendent. 
On  the  other  hand,  where  the  superintendent  serves  in  the 
capacity  of  more  than  one  officer,  the  next  step  is  to  provide  him 
with  an  assistant  who  shall  be  under  his  direction.  For  illustra- 
tions of  such  developmental  stages  see  the  rules  and  regulations 
of  such  cities  as  Fort  Worth,  Texas,  Joplin,  Mo.,  Bridgeport  and 

23  Massachusetts :  Chap.  444,  Acts  1911,  Sec.  1,  quoted  in  Revised  Laws 
Relating  to  Public  Instruction,  1915,  p.  ZZ. 

24  Deffenbaugh :  School  Administration  in  the  Smaller  Cities,  Bur.  of 
Edu.  Bui.  44,  1915,  p.  42. 


74     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Norwalk,  Conn.  If  our  analysis  of  the  probable  lines  of  develop- 
ment be  correct,  the  lesson  to  be  drawn  is  clear.  Undoubtedly 
much  of  the  lack  of  coordinated  or  centralized  authority  and  re- 
sponsibility that  has  developed  in  some  cities  need  not  be  re- 
peated in  others  that  are  now  in  the  developmental  stage.  If 
superintendents  in  these  growing  cities  be  on  the  alert  to  lead  and 
urge  development  such  as  will  definitely  lay  a  foundation  for 
future  centralized  organization  rather  than  be  content  to  let 
matters  drift,  it  can  be  averted. 

Now  if  the  source  of  the  divided  or  uncoordinated  form  of 
organization  can  be  traced  to  the  stage  in  the  development  of  the 
administrative  control  of  a  school  system  where  members  of  the 
board  serve  in  the  capacity  of  executive  officers  of  the  schools  an 
important  question  arises.  Is  it  necessary  that  the  board  of  edu- 
cation have  a  president  and  a  secretary  of  its  own  body?  Why 
not  have  the  superintendent  of  schools,  who  is  the  chief  executive 
officer  employed  to  execute  the  policies  of  the  board,  perform  the 
duties  usually  assigned  to  a  president?  His  business  assistant 
could  serve  as  secretary.  The  question  is  one  to  be  solved  by 
future  investigators  in  the  field  of  administration.  It  will  be 
seen  later  from  the  study  made  of  the  administrative  organization 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  system  that  the  chief  executive  of- 
ficer, i.e.,  the  president  of  the  road,  is  president  of  the  board  of 
directors.  This  magnificent  organization  does  not  provide  one 
head  for  the  road  and  another  for  its  board  of  directors.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  New  York  Telephone  Company  and  of  the 
American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company.  Yet  even  though 
this  is  true  in  large  and  successful  business  organizations  it  is 
not  so  in  school  administration.  We  have  in  the  person  of  the 
superintendent  a  chief  executive  for  the  head  of  the  school  system 
and  at  the  same  time  the  board  of  education  elects  one  of  its 
own  number  to  preside  over  its  own  deliberations.  Conserva- 
tive administrators  should  be  required  to  justify  an  arrangement 
which  differs  so  materially  from  that  found  in  the  field  of  busi- 
ness. 

In  the  Pennsylvania  System,  the  board  of  directors  advise 
with  their  president  to  arrive  at  a  concensus  judgment  as  to  the 
policies  to  be  followed.  The  chief  executive  is  thus  the  real 
leader  of  his  board  of  directors.     Nothing  found  in  the  field 


^^■ 


The  Administrative  Organization  75 

covered  by  this  study  would  suggest  that  an  organization,  whereby 
the  superintendent  as  chief  executive,  could  not  fill  the  position 
of  president  of  the  board  of  education  in  addition  to  his  ordinary 
duties.  However,  the  solution  of  the  problem  is  not  ours  to 
reach.     Our  purpose  is  merely  to  direct  attention  to  it. 

Let  us  return  to  the  matter  of  classification  of  cities  accord- 
ing to  form  of  organization.  That  the  reason  for  placing  cer- 
tain cities  in  the  class  "Centralized  in  Part"  may  be  understood, 
we  will  indicate  briefly  the  particular  respects  in  which  these  cities 
have  a  centralized  or  coordinated  form  of  organization.  Bear  in 
mind  that  our  chief  interest  here  is  to  see  whether  the  principle 
of  giving  to  the  chief  executive  a  wide  range  of  authority  is  ob- 
served. It  must  be  remembered  that  as  previously  stated  no 
hard  and  fast  division  lines  between  the  groups  can  well  be  made 
and  that  in  this  classification  we  are  considering  only  centraliza- 
tion with  respect  to  the  main  departments.  The  departments 
of  attendance  and  medical  inspection  will  be  treated  separately. 
Table  XII  gives  the  cities  in  which  the  rules  of  the  board  give  the 
superintendent  control  or  direction  over. the  duties  of  the  other 
executive  officers  indicated,  those  in  which  he  is  given  part  con- 
trol and  those  in  which  he  is  given  very  little  or  no  control  over 
their  duties. 

The  terms  "Business  Director"  and  "Superintendent  of  Build- 
ings" are  used  uniformly  here,  though  in  practice  various  terms 
are  used  to  designate  the  officers  performing  these  functions. 
All  numbers  except  in  total  columns  are  key  numbers  to  cities  in 
Table  I.  Reading  down  the  columns  will  give  some  idea  of  the 
relative  numbers  of  each.  It  should  be  noted  that  in  some  of  the 
cities  placed  in  the  "no  control"  section  the  superintendent  does 
have  some  control  in  certain  minor  matters,  but  the  amount  and 
importance  of  such  control  was  not  deemed  sufficient  to  warrant 
placing  them  in  the  "part  control"  section.  These  may  be  desig- 
nated "border-line  cases."  Cities  in  which  the  superintendent  is 
both  superintendent  and  secretary  or  clerk  are  placed  in  the  "con- 
trol" section  for  the  reason  that  the  actual  secretarial  work  is  not 
usually  done  by  the  superintendent  himself  but  by  an  assistant 
under  his  immediate  supervision  and  direction. 

In  Table  XI  of  the  cities  classed  as  having  a  "partly  central- 
ized" or  "coordinated  organization,"  i.e.,  where  the  superintendent 


76     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 


X 


w   b 


U 


u 

>< 

H-l 

n 

n 

Q 

< 

M 

H 

>-« 

K 

U 

X 

M 

i.^ 

00 

Ol 

«^ 

ft 

••• 

o 

••. 

H 

00 

NO 

3. 

8, 

o 

^              ^      m              • 

d\ 

lO 

a. 

S, 

O          .NO 

oj 

•^rO*2       "i'Sj 

oT^ 

'4- 

-ra       On*** 

-    On 

S^ 

»    00 

TT 

,   6, 

20, 
9,  3 
5-7, 
5,  8: 
2,  9 

2s 

3    NO- 

>. 

''■       _L«o    •  _i 

.00      no 

CM  ON 

.00  CM    .tv  e^ 

m 

b 

'^'T    .'^    .  .o 

s'- 

kI' 

.ro  vo  .-H  t^  00  O 

".NO 

»-t  »H  CMIO  VO  00  rl 

fOt^ 

t^NO 

H 

N 

CO 

o> 

•-• 

w> 

o 

H 

00 
m 

2  'i<^'i^ 

)^t^ 

'"On 

-^  go"  (>,-;„-•-> 

MtvT 

.-«^SOO 

CM    • 

V     -    .NO     .    . 

o»^No     ooo 

VO°^ 

^ 

'^'^ciR  «>^:. 

>. 

.00 

o 
to 

c 

*-   .o 

, 

.«oo 

.  ■*  «>1  <N1 1^  rro 

•-ir%»-< 

CNJ 

M  1-1  CNJ  Tf  NO  t^  ON 

T3 

w> 

(O 

CN» 
CNI 

o 

H 

Ono 

); 

CM     _ 
.COro 

On 
00 

On^On 

■* 

NO 

t^a_oo 

»o 

s^ 

.^fO 

»^ 

•*    ^00 

CvJ 

to 

'"'cm    , 

NO 

_--*t-r 

NO 

^ 

"^  .t^ 

^ 

ca 

»-<lO      ^ 

>> 

NO 

fo 

'^.i^ 

u 

^ 

NO      _     _ 

NO 

.^OtC 

<0 

00 

NO  CM  NO 

tc 

N 

^ 

ON 

0 

H 

X. 

NO 

n 
P»3. 

>t 

^N^ 

.CM 

U 

M 

ONO 

NO 

fo 

"-•                 » 

♦^■N*- 

"3 

^.  "o 

"S 

t. 

t:  2 

o  t 

o 

p:  § 

■^    O 

U 

u 

u 

6 


i-i      .5 


«     *? 


2  c  c  }<  a 

rt  u  1)  «  o 

"  -St; S  o 

rt  .S.S-3 

a  EC  gT3 

Ot  f  t>  c  b 

«  o<o.S  2 

3  3  O  O 


O  li 


/*  4,  3  t>  m 
ai  0.'m  CI."" 


<« 


.—  „ 

E  a 
'I 


«  a  a  a  e-r  a  a 

N*M(;^^4>f'4jO 

**  c  a  a  a  ^e  a 
u.S.S.S.S  s.s.s 

Sa>  u  o  (;  !-•  u  V 

a  3  a  3  3J3  3  a 
asasssss 


The  Administrative  Organization  77 

has  control  and  direction  over  the  heads  of  some  of  the  depart- 
ments at  least,  or  over  their  important  duties,  we  may  note  some 
of  the  respects  in  which  he  has  control.  In  New  Orleans,  the 
inspector  of  buildings  "shall  receive  and  carry  out  any  instruc- 
tions given  by  the  superintendent  regarding  any  matters  pertain- 
ing to  the  health  and  comfort  of  teachers  and  pupils  and  improve- 
ment of  instruction."  ^^  This  may  seem  insufficient,  but  with  a 
strict  interpretation  of  all  that  this  implies  it  will  be  seen  that  his 
control  is  not  unimportant. 

In  Bridgeport  the  agent  of  the  board  (superintendent  of  build- 
ings), in  addition  to  prescribed  duties,  must  perform  "such  other 
duties  as  may  be  required  of  him  by  the  superintendent."  ^^    He 
must  report  back  his  disposition  of  affairs  submitted  to  him.     In 
case  of  "inefficiency  or  neglect  of  duty  on  the  part  of  janitors" 
he  reports  "to  the  superintendent  or  to  the  committee  on  school- 
houses."     Topeka  ^^  requires  that  the  superintendent  of  buildings 
perform  his  duties  "in  consultation  with  the  superintendent  of 
schools" — a  rather  lukewarm  provision  but  nevertheless  a  step 
toward  coordination  of  departments.     Fort  Worth  requires  the 
clerk  of  the  school  board,  in  addition  to  performing  other  duties, 
to  "do  such  clerical  work  as  may  be  requested  by  the  .    .    . 
superintendent   of    schools."  ^°     Moline,   Illinois,*^    requires   the 
supervisor  of  janitors  and  buildings  "to  perform  such  other  duties 
as  the  superintendent  may  designate."     In  Beverley,  Mass.,  the 
board  has  prescribed  in  clear-cut  fashion,  "There  shall  be  a  school- 
house  custodian  who  under  the  superintendent  of  schools,  shall  be 
the  executive  officer  of  the  board  in  all  matters  relating  to  the 
care  and  custody  of  land  and  of  buildings.   .    .    . "  *^     The  Rules 
and  Regulations  of  Waterbury  specifically  state  that:  "The  in- 
spector of  school  buildings  shall  act  under  the  direction  and  con- 
trol of  the  superintendent  of  schools."  *^     Philadelphia,   forced 
by  state  law  applying  to  school  districts  of  the  first  class,  requires 
that  the  superintendent  of  buildings  submit  "all  plans  for  con- 
struction of  new  buildings  or  for  additions  and  repairs  to  old 

8T  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools,  Art.  IX,  Sec.  7. 

38  Rules  of  the  Board  of  Education,  1915,  Chap.  II,  Art.  VI. 

»»  Rules  and  Regulations,  1914,  Sec.  49. 

<o  Rules  and  Regulations  (in  1913  Report),  Art.  1. 

*i  Rules,  Chap.  II,  Sec.  4. 

«  Rules  of  Procedure,  1912,  Chap.  IV. 

*3  Rules  and  Regulations,  1914,  Chap.  VIII. 


78     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

buildings  ...  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  for  criticism  of 
that  official."  " 

The  board  of  education  at  Joplin,  Mo.,  makes  this  provision : 

"The  supervisor  of  buildings  and  grounds  shall,  under  the  direction  of 
the  superintendent,  devote  his  entire  time  to  the  care  of  the  property  of 
the  school  district,  and  such  other  duties   as   may  be  assigned  him."  *' 

Worcester  does  not  give  the  superintendent  sole  direction  over 
the  inspector  of  schoolhouses : 

"It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  inspector  to  exercise  a  general  supervision  of 
the  schoolhouses  under  the  direction  of  the  committee  on  schoolhouses, 
the  committee  on  high  schools  and  the  superintendent,  or  as  directed 
by  the  committee."  *8 

Manchester,  N.  H.,  gives  the  superintendent  "general  super- 
vision ...  of  all  tTie  employees  of  the  school  board." "  In 
reply  to  a  letter  of  inquiry  as  to  whether  this  is  intended  to  in- 
clude the  clerk  and  the  schoolhouse  agent  the  superintendent  re- 
plied that  he  had  control  over  the  schoolhouse  agent  but  not  over 
the  clerk. 

The  quotations  just  given  from  the  rules  of  these  cities  show 
that  in  each  of  the  cities  classed  as  having  an  organization 
"Centralized  in  Part"  the  superintendent  has  control  in  some  im- 
portant respects  over  at  least  one  of  the  other  executive  officers 
of  the  system.  The  number  of  cities  in  which  even  this  much 
authority  is  given  to  the  chief  executive  is  indeed  small.  When 
we  compare  the  number  of  cities  in  the  "Centralized"  or  "Central- 
ized in  Part"  groups  with  those  in  the  "Divided  or  Uncoordinated" 
group,  we  see  that  much  remains  to  be  accomplished  in  the  way 
of  centralizing  school  administrative  organization.  That  so  much 
remains  to  be  done,  that  school  organization  is  lagging  far  behind 
progressive  business  organization,  may  be  due  to  the  timidity  of 
boards  in  granting  authority  to  their  chief  executive.  Competi- 
tion has  not  yet  been  keenly  felt  in  education  as  it  has  in  business. 
This  may  account  in  part  for  the  conservative  attitude  of  boards 
of  education  as  compared  with  the  attitude  of  boards  of  directors 
in  business  to  the  question  of  giving  to  the  chief  executive  a  wide 

**  Op.  cit..  IV.  Sec.  2. 

"Rules  and  Regulations  (in  1915  Report),  Sec.  VIII. 

*«  Rules  of  the  School  Committee,  1913,  Chap.  IV. 

*»  Rules  of  the  School  Committee,  1915,  Chap.  VIII,  Sec.  1. 


The  Administrative  Organization  79 

range  of  authority.  It  may  be  that  the  superintendent's  lack  of 
power  in  many  cases  is  due  to  his  own  timidity  or  lack  of  fore- 
sight in  demanding,  as  a  condition  to  his  acceptance  of  the  position 
of  superintendent,  that  he  be  made  chief  executive  in  fact  as  well 
as  in  name  and  that  the  professional  nature  of  his  position  be 
recognized.  Superintendents  who  accept  a  position  without  the 
guarantee  of  any  effective  control  over  other  executives  of  the 
system  do  so  quite  probably  for  one  of  four  reasons:  (1)  they 
may  do  so  blindly,  not  realizing  the  grave  consequences  that  may 
follow;  (2)  they  may  willingly  acquiesce  in  becoming  one  of 
several  executive  heads;  (3)  they  may  fail  to  demand  that  the 
professional  nature  of  the  position  of  chief  executive  be  recog- 
nized for  fear  of  not  being  elected  to  the  position  to  which  they 
aspire ;  (4)  they  may  depend  upon  the  strength  of  their  own  per- 
sonality to  dominate  the  situation.  It  is  quite  possible  that  all  of 
these  factors  are  influential  in  restricting  the  progress  of  central- 
ized school  administration.  Whatever  the  cause,  the  results 
found  are  sufficient  to  indict  most  of  the  boards  in  the  cities  of 
the  study  on  the  charge  of  failure  to  recognize  adequately  the 
professional  aspects  of  educational  leadership. 

It  will  be  argued  by  some  that  even  though  the  superintendent 
has  no  authority  given  him  over  other  executive  officers  by  rule, 
he  does  as  a  matter  of  fact  exercise  control  in  practice.  While 
this  was  found  to  be  true  in  some  of  the  cities  visited,  notably 
Lincoln,  East  Orange,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  and  Schenectady,  it  is  by 
no  means  assured.  In  Boston  *^  and  Cleveland,*^  where  ex- 
haustive inquiries  have  been  made,  it  does  not  occur.  The  rules 
are  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  form  of  contract  made  between  the 
board  and  its  officers  and  employees.  In  fact,  the  board  of  edu- 
cation in  Cleveland  goes  so  far  as  to  specify  in  its  rules  that: 
"Such  rules  and  regulations  shall  be  deemed  a  part  of  the 
contract  of  employment  of  such  officers,  appointees  and  em- 
ployees. .  .  ."  °"  There  is  no  doubt  of  a  board's  intent  in  such 
a  case.  In  any  event,  it  is  a  hazardous  undertaking  to  trust  that 
past  rules  will  be  laid  aside. 

*'  Boston :  Report  of  a  Study  of  Certain  Phases  of  the  Public  School 
System,  1916. 

*^  Cleveland :  Educ.  Survey — School  Organization  and  Administration, 
Chap.  III. 

5°  Rules  Governing  the  Board  of  Education,  1915,  p.  8. 


80     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

We  may  further  analyze  administrative  organization  by  ex- 
amining the  distribution  of  control  with  respect  to  such  depart- 
ments as  that  of  attendance  and  medical  inspection.  Table  XII 
gives  also  the  distribution  of  control  for  the  departments  of  com- 
pulsory attendance  and  medical  inspection.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  prevailing  practice  is  to  give  the  chief  executive  either  part  or 
entire  control  and  direction  over  the  attendance  department.  The 
common  practice  with  respect  to  medical  inspection  is  to  place 
this  feature  of  educational  oversight  under  the  direction  of  the 
chief  executive  officer.  Since  the  main  purpose  of  medical  inspec- 
tion is  to  indicate  possible  means  of  preserving  or  of  improving  the 
physical  well  being  of  the  children  in  order  that  they  may  be  phys- 
ically fit  to  take  full  advantage  of  their  educational  opportunity,  it 
would  seem  only  fair  that  such  boards  as  Cleveland,  which  makes 
this  department  independent  of  the  educational  department,  should 
be  asked  to  justify  such  arrangement.     The  Cleveland  Rules  read : 

"The  chief  supervisor  shall  have  charge  of  and  be  responsible  for,  sub- 
ject to  the  director  of  schools,"  (i.e.,  business  director)  "the  work  of  the 
Department  of  Medical  Inspection."  si- 
There  is  no  evident  reason  why  medical  inspection  having  to 
do  with  physical  welfare,  a  matter  fundamental  to  educational 
results  and  depending  for  its  own  efficiency  upon  cooperation 
with  the  educational  department,  should  be  made  independent  of 
it.  If  medical  inspection  exists  for  making  possible  better  educa- 
tional results,  is  it  not  a  waste  of  money  to  provide  any  form 
of  administrative  organization  which  hinders  the  most  efficient 
use  of  the  money  spent  for  teaching  and  supervision?  A  busi- 
ness director  is  not  expected  to  possess  professional  knowledge 
of  child  nature  and  educational  needs.  In  Cleveland  the  "Director 
of  Schools"  nominates  to  the  board  for  appointment,  medical 
inspectors,  nurses  and  a  "Supervisor  of  Lunch  Rooms."  '^  Is 
the  board  of  education  in  Cleveland  certain  that  a  business  direc- 
tor will  nominate  persons  who  are  as  well  qualified  as  would 
a  superintendent  and  his  assistants  trained  in  the  fields  of  edu- 
cational psychology  and  sociology,  and  teaching  method?  Why 
allow  this  professional  skill  represented  in  an  educational  staff 

".  Op.  cit.,  p.  80. 

»2  Minutes,  Sept.  13,  1915. 


The  Administrative  Organization  81 

to  be  wasted  in  disuse?  It  is  a  clear-cut  case  of  violation  of  the 
principle  of  giving  proper  authority  to  the  superintendent  as  chief 
executive.^^ 

3.  Administrative  Organization  in  Other  Fields 

Boards  of  education,  loath  to  adopt  a  set  of  rules  and  regula- 
tions which  centers  authority  and  direction  in  administrative 
matters  in  the  chief  executive,  which  expects  him  to  initiate  new 
policies  and  which  places  upon  him  the  responsibility  for  results, 
may  profit  by  an  examination  of  the  administrative  organization 
in  the  field  of  business  or  in  the  city  manager  type  of  commission 
government.  They  will  find  there  the  three  principles  of  good 
administration  referred  to  above  actively,  employed.  With  a 
view  to  finding  what  provision  is  made  for  the  operation  of  ad- 
ministrative principles  which  are  applicable  both  to  business 
organization  and  to  school  organization,  some  attention  was  de- 
voted to  a  study  of  a  number  of  business  concerns  of  recognized 
success.  For  the  same  purpose  the  city  manager  type  of  com- 
mission government  was  selected  for  consideration.  These 
studies  were  made  through  an  examination  of  by-laws  or  rules 
and  regulations  of  boards  of  directors,  city  charters,  charts  of 
administrative  organization,  conferences  with  executive  officers 
of  business  concerns  and  correspondence. 

a.  Organization  in  Business 

The  following  concerns,  all  of  which  were  later  found  to  have 
a  centralized  or  coordinated  form  of  administrative  organization 
were  considered: 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company. 

New  York  Telephone  Company. 

American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company. 

New  York  Central  Railroad  Company. 

John  Wanamaker,  New  York  Store. 

Metropolitian  Life  Insurance  Company. 

R.  H.  Macy  and  Company,  Department  Store. 

Park  and  Tilford  Stores. 

68  It  may  be  noted  that  the  board  in  Cleveland  has  gone  so  far  astray 
that  it  fails  to  recognize  that  the  educational  department  is  more  impor- 
tant than  the  business  department.  It  designates  its  business  director  as 
the  "fchief  executive." 


82     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Chart  III  gives  in  some  detail  the  administrative  organization 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company.  It  will  be  seen  at  a 
glance  that  this  eminently  successful  railroad  has  a  thoroughly 
centralized  or  coordinated  type  of  organization.  Not  only  has 
this  immense  system  such  a  form  of  organization  but,  according 
to  a  statement  made  to  the  writer  by  the  secretary,  it  has  had  this 
form  since  1853.  In  this  system  each'- department  is  centralized 
within  itself  and  all  departments  are  directly  under  the  control 
of  the  president  as  chief  executive.  Each  officer  beginning  with 
the  president,  it  may  be  noted,  has  immediate  control  of  those 
directly  below  him.  Each  vice-president  has  supervision  over 
his  department  and  through  him  all  nominations  for  subordinate 
positions  must  be  made.  The  vice-president  in  charge  of  operat- 
ing, for  example,  has  control  over  the  general  manager.  The 
general  manager  in  turn  has  immediate  direction  over  the  general 
superintendents.  The  general  superintendents  again  exercise  con- 
trol over  the  division  superintendents,  the  division  superintendents 
over  the  train  masters  and  they  in  turn  over  conductors  and  loco- 
motive engineers.  Thus  we  have  a  direct  chain  of  control  from 
chief  executive  down  to  conductors  and  engineers.  To  the  exec- 
utive officers  is  entrusted  the  direction  of  the  men  who  hold  in 
their  hands  the  lives  of  the  thousands  who  travel,  without  a  sug- 
gestion of  interference  on  the  part  of  the  board  of  directors. 
Such  distribution  of  control  among  railroads  is  not  peculiar  to  the 
Pennsylvania  alone.  This  may  be  seen  from  the  published  chart 
of  the  operating  department  of  the  New  York  Central  and  Hud- 
son River  Railroad  Company  °*  (now  New  York  Central  Railroad 
Company).  From  Chart  IV  we  may  see  similar  facts  of  control 
and  direction  for  the  New  York  Telephone  Company. 

Possibly  not  many  of  us  would  care  to  ride  on  trains,  the  direc- 
tion of  whose  crews  was  subject  to  whimsical  interference  from 
the  board  of  directors  or  the  members  of  which  were  selected  by 
the  board  of  directors.  This  would  be  particularly  true  if  ques- 
tions of  political  expediency  or  personal  friendship  helped  to  de- 
termine the  selection.  Scarcely  less,  possibly,  would  we  care  to 
have  telephone  service  in  any  modern  American  city  installed  and 

'*  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  Railroad  Company :  Orgfani- 
zation  of  the  Operating  Department,  1908.  "No  copy  of  this  Organiza- 
tion has  been  issued  since  the  date  given" — letter  from  the  Secretary  of 
the  New  York  Central  to  the  writer,  April  17,  1916. 


The  Administrative  Organization 


83 


-I 


I 


X 

u 


84     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

operated  by  persons  selected  and  directed  by  the  board  of  di- 
rectors. 

However  intolerable  such  procedure  would  seem  in  railroad  or 
telephone  management,  an  analogous  procedure  in  school  ad- 
ministration does  not  seem  intolerable  to  all  boards  of  education. 
Possibly  it  requires  a  matter  of  life  and  death  to  awaken  some 
school  board  members  to  the  seriousness  of  the  situation.  Never- 
theless boards  of  education  that  choose  to  interfere  with  the  chief 
executive's  control  over  his  assistants  need  to  consider  that  they 
are  controlling  in  considerable  measure  the  destinies  of  thousands 
of  children. 

Let  us  see  more  in  detail  how  our  principles  of  administrative 
organization  are  provided,  either  as  found  in  rules  and  regula- 
tions or  otherwise.  We  may  consider  first  what  provisions  are 
made  for  giving  to  the  chief  executive  large  powers  in  administra- 
tive matters.  Does  the  board  of  directors  in  the  concerns  we 
have  considered  grant  to  the  chief  executive  and  his  assistants  a 
wide  scope  of  authority  in  executive  matters  ?  Does  it  give  to  its 
professionally  or  technically  trained  leaders  the  freedom  that  per- 
mits these  officers  to  use  their  skill  and  judgment?  Does  it  per- 
mit them  to  be  the  judges  in  matters  where  their  judgment  should 
be  most  accurate,  such  as  in  the  selection  of  subordinates  and  as- 
sistants ? 

(1)  The  Authority  Granted  the  Chief  Executive  and  His  As- 
sistants. We  may  begin  with  department  stores.  The  organiza- 
tion of  the  John  Wanamaker  Stores  may  be  taken  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  administrative  organization  among  such  business  con- 
cerns. The  attitude  of  this  firm  toward  its  professional  leaders 
is  expressed  in  the  following : 

"The  architect  and  executive  who  design  and  direct  and  yet  strive  to  do 
the  bricklaying  will  advance  not  far  and  quickly  wear  out.  One  who  has 
the  faculty  for  right  selection  of  responsible  subordinates  needs  also 
that  wise  sense  of  justice  and  appreciation  which  accords  unstinted  scope 
of  action  and  generous  recognition  of  results.  The  proverbial  reluctance 
to  allow  those  to  enter  the  water  whom  we  would  have  swim,  has  given 
short  measure  to  many  a  success.  A  good  executive  finds,  develops  and 
leans  upon  those  who  can  carry  forward  for  him  the  increasing  divisions 
of  his  single  great  work  .  .  ."  °' 

6' Wanamaker,  John:  editorial  in  Business  Management,  p.  8,  A.  W. 
Shaw  Publishing  Company. 


The  Administrative  Organization  ^      85 

In  this  firm  the  general  manager  is  the  executive  head.  All 
departments  center  in  him.  Nominations  of  subordinates  are 
made  through  him  and  must  be  acceptable  to  him.'^* 

The  essential  organization  of  the  New  York  Telephone  Com- 
pany may  be  seen  in  Chart  IV.  Control  is  centered  in  the  presi- 
dent as  chief  executive  officer.  Nominations  for  subordinate 
positions  are  made  through  the  vice-president.  Officials  of  dif- 
ferent grades  have  powers  of  appointment  and  fixing  of  safaries 
within  prescribed  limits.  Within  sub-departments  appointments 
at  salaries  not  over  twenty-five  to  thirty  dollars  per  week  need 
not  be  approved  by  the  board  of  directors.  Different  maxima  are 
fixed  for  different  grades  of  positions.  Such  liberty  in  the  field 
of  school  administration  is  practically  unheard  of. 

In  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company  we  find  authority 
centralized  in  the  president.  He  is  not  only  the  executive  head 
of  the  company  but  as  in  case  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  and 
New  York  Telephone  Companies  he  is  president  of  the  board  of 
directors  as  well.  The  powers  of  the  chief  executive  and  his  as- 
sistants may  be  judged  from  the  following: 

"It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  president  to  exercise  a  supervision  and 
superintendence  over  all  the  business  and  affairs  of  the  company.  .  .  . 
It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  vice-president  to  consult  and  advise  with 
the  president,  whenever  requested  .  .  .  and  act  as  secretary  to  the  board; 
to  assist  the  president  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  whenever  requested 
.  .  .  and  in  concurrence  with  the  president  to  have  general  oversight  of 
all  the  business  and  affairs  of  the  company.  The  duties  of  the  other 
vice-presidents  shall  be  such  as  shall  be  designated  by  the  president,  who 
shall  keep  the  board  advised  thereof  .  .  .  The  treasurer  shall  make  reg- 
ular reports  as  required  to  the  president.  .  .  .  All  .  .  .  duties  shall  be  in 
connection  with  and  under  the  direction  and  supervision  of  the  president. 
.  .  .  The  duties  of  the  auditor  shall  be  such  as  may  be  designated  by  the 
president,  vice-president  or  treasurer.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  sec- 
retary to  appoint  and  have  charge  and  supervision  of  that  part  of  the 
clerical  force  of  the  industrial  department  which  receives  applications 
and  prepares  policies  for  issue  .  .  .  and  to  perform  such  other  duties  as 
may  be  required  by  the  president.  ...  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
comptroller  to  have,  under  the  direction  of  the  president  and  the  super- 
vision of  the  treasurer,  charge  of  the  real  estate  belonging  to  the  com- 
pany and  of  the  company's  investments  in  bonds  and  mortgages;  to  have 

•58  Statement  made  by  the  Assistant  General  Manager  to  the  writer, 
June  8.  1916. 


86     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 


The  Administrative  Organization  87 

charge  of  the  home  office  properties  of  the  company.  .  .  .  The  comp- 
troller shall  perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  designated  by  the 
president  or  vice-president.  ...  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  medical  di- 
rectors to  examine  applicants  .  .  .  when  requested  by  an  officer  of  the 
company,  and  to  make  in  each  case  a  report  thereof  to  the  officers  of 
the  company;  ...  to  appoint,  remove,  and  prescribe  the  territories  of 
the  field  medical  examiners  and  fix  their  fees.  ...  It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  assistant  medical  directors  to  assist  the  medical  directors  .  .  .  and 
to  perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  required  by  the  medical  directors 
or  by  the  president  .  .  ."  ^^ 

We  have  witnessed  the  fact  that  the  principle  of  allowing  the 
chief  executive  and  his  assistants  a  wide  scope  of  authority  in 
executive  matters  is  observed  in  the  three  business  enterprises 
just  considered.  It  is  evident  that  the  directors  desire  that  the 
professional  ability  of  its  expert  leaders  shall  be  unrestricted  in 
matters  of  execution.  We  may  now  turn  our  attention  to  rail- 
roads. There  we  find  what  is  in  some  respects  even  greater  con- 
sideration for  the  expert  abilities  of  its  leaders.  Executive  of- 
ficers who  are  elected  because  of  expert  ability  are  not  restricted 
in  the  use  of  that  ability  for  which  the  directors  are  paying, 
through  any  lack  of  coordination.  Only  the  operating  depart- 
ment of  the  New  York  Central  was  considered  in  detail.  The 
powers  conferred  upon  the  head  of  this  department  may  be  seen 
from  the  following : 

"The  vice-president  and  general  manager  shall  have  charge  of  the 
operations  of  the  transportation,  engineering,  maintenance  of  way  and 
equipment  departments. 

He  shall  nominate  officers  for  the  heads  of  his  department  subject  to 
confirmation  by  the  senior  vice-president. 

He  may  authorize  additions  to  forces  in  his  department  and  may  at 
any  time  direct  the  discharge  of  any  employee  therein,  where  the  inter- 
ests of  the  Company  seem  to  require  it.  .  .  . 

He  shall  perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  assigned  to  him  by  the 
senior  vice-president,  the  president  or  the  board."  ^^ 

"The  assistant  general  manager  (of  transportation)  shall,  under  the 
direction  of  the  vice-president  and  general  manager  .  .  .  nominate  of- 
ficers and  sub-officers  for  all  positions  in  his  department."  ^^ 

"The    general    superintendents  .  .  .  shall    recommend    to    the    assistant 

^^  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company :  By-Laws,  1915,  Sec.  15-22. 
68  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  R.  R.  Co. :   Orgfanization  of  the  Oper- 
ating Department,  1908,  pp.  5-7. 
6»  Ibid.,  p.  12. 


88     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

general  manager  (of  transportation)  the  proper  persons  for  the  various 
offices  and  positions  in  their  respective  districts."  ^° 

The  provisions  made  by  the  board  of  directors  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania are  stated  in  a  manner  M^hich  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  their 
interpretation  with  respect  to  the  powers  of  executive  officers : 

"The  president  shall  have  general  supervision  and  direction  of  all  de- 
partments of  the  Company's  service  and  be  assisted  in  the  performance  of 
his  executive  duties  by  the  vice-presidents."  ^^ 

"All  the  officers  named  in  this  organization,  except  those  otherwise  pro- 
vided for,  (secretary,  treasurer,  vice-presidents),  shall  be  appointed  by 
the  president  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  board,  and  hold  office  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  board  and  subject  to  the  right  of  removal  herein  pre- 
scribed." 62 

Within  departments  of  the  Pennsylvania,  e.g.,  the  operating 
department : 

"The  vice-president  in  charge  of  operation  shall  have  supervision  of  the 
operating  and  pension  departments.  .  .  , 

He  shall  nominate  to  the  president  for  appointment  subject  to  confirma- 
tion by  the  board,  all  officers  in  the  departments  under  his  supervision,  au- 
thorize additions  to  the  force  when  necessary,  and  may  at  any  time  direct 
the  discharge  of  any  officer  or  employee  therein,  if,  in  his  judgment,  the  in- 
terests of  the  company  require  it.  Nominations  of  station  agents,  con- 
ductors and  other  employees  of  the  operating  department  required  to  give 
bond  .  .  .  shall  be  made  by  the  general  manager  to  him,  who,  if  the  same 
have  his  approval,  shall  report  them  to  the  board.  .  .  .  Unless  disapproved 
by  the  board,  such  appointments  shall  stand  confirmed.  ..."  ^2* 

"The  general  manager  shall,  under  the  direction  of  the  vice-president  in 
charge  of  operation,  have  charge  of  the  operating  department. 

"He  shall  have  authority  with  the  approval  of  the  vice-president  in 
charge  of  operation,  to  order  through  the  purchasing  agent,  machinery 
tools  and  materials  for  shops,  for  repairing,  rolling  and  floating  equip- 
ment, machinery,  and  roadway  and  for  all  other  purposes  of  his  depart- 
ment. .  .  . 

"He  shall  prepare  for  the  approval  of  the  vice-president  in  charge  of 
operation,  the  president  and  the  board,  the  necessary  rules  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  operating  department. 

"He  shall,  at  his  discretion,  or  upon  notice  from  the  comptroller,  of 

«o  Ibid.,  p.  14. 

*i  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company :    By-Laws  and  Organization,  1913. 
Amended  to  1916,  p.  13. 
•»2/Hd.,  p.  11. 
«2*/6td.,  p.  13. 


The  Administrative  Organisation  89 

irregularities  in,  or  neglect  of  duty  in  connection  with  accounts  or  the 
handling  of  the  money  of  the  company,  or  by  order  of  the  president  or 
board  direct  the  removal  or  suspension  of  any  employee  in  his  depart- 
ment. .  .  ." 

"He  shall  nominate  to  the  vice-president  in  charge  of  operation  all 
subordinate  officers  in  his  department,  and  shall  have  authority  to  appoint 
all  necessary  employees  therein."  ^^ 

Similar  authority  is  conferred  in  each  of  the  other  depart- 
ments.®* 

What  more  conclusive  evidence  can  boards  of  education  ask 
than  that  presented  in  the  case  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
Company?  Each  of  the  concerns  to  which  we  have  referred  are 
enterprises  engaged  in  a  business  that  involves  millions  of  dollars. 
Efficient  organization  with  them  is  a  matter  of  financial  concern. 
The  form  of  administrative  organization  which  in  their  experi- 
ence makes  for  the  highest  efficiency  is  that  which  is  centralized 
or  coordinated.  It  is  that  in  which  expert  guidance  is  placed  at 
a  premium. 

We  have  stated  as  a  second  principle  held  by  students  of  ad- 
ministration that  responsibility  for  results  should  be  centered  on 
the  chief  executive.  It  is  but  the  counterpart  of  centralized 
authority.  It  is  possible  by  centralizing  authority  to  fix  responsi- 
bility for  results.  Through  the  medium  of  reports  on  the  busi- 
ness transacted  or  the  work  accomplished  it  is  possible  to  learn 
just  what  results  have  been  achieved  or  why  others  have  not  been 
achieved. 

(2)  Holding  Executive  Officers  Responsible,  Requiring  Re- 
ports. How  is  provision  made  for  this  second  administrative 
principle  in  the  field  of  business?  Unfortunately  precise  data 
on  the  kind  of  reports  required  by  directors  of  department  stores 
were  not  collected.  However,  the  responsibility  placed  upon  exec- 
utive officers  in  such  business  firms  is  quite  generally  known. 
With  a  centralized  organization  such  as  these  concerns  have  and 
under  the  keen  force  of  competition,  a  board  of  directors  that  did 
not  adequately  hold  its  chief  executive  responsible  for  results 
would  probably  not  long  survive.     In  the  New  York  Telephone 

83  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Co. :  By-Laws  and  Organization,  1913,  amend, 
to  1916,  pp.  47-8. 


90     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Company  the  policy  of  the  board  of  directors  is  to  demand  re- 
sults. The  president  must  submit  at  each  meeting  his  report  of 
earnings  and  expenses,  a  cash  statement,  auditors'  vouchers,  esti- 
mates, "completion"  reports  showing  the  progress  of  new  con- 
structions, increases  and  decreases  in  pay  rolls,  expansions  of  the 
system  and  station  reports.  These  reports  are  by  departments 
and  for  each  line  of  expense.  The  figures  must  be  presented  in 
such  a  way  as  to  reveal  growth  or  decline  of  the  business  in  com- 
parative terms  so  that  certain  parts  of  the  system  may  be  set  over 
against  other  parts.^^  Thus  it  is  seen  in  this  company  that  while 
a  wide  scope  of  authority  is  given  to  executives  in  administra- 
tive matters  and  in  proposing  new  policies,  the  board  of  directors, 
through  the  medium  of  reports,  knows  whether  it  is  getting  re- 
sults and  exercises  ultimate  control. 

In  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company,  the  president 
must 

".  .  .  report  in  writing  at  each  reg^ilar  meeting  the  condition,  standing 
and  affairs  of  the  company.  .  .  ."  ^^ 

"It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  actuary  to  keep  a  strict  account  of  all  risks 
taken  by  the  company,  and  of  the  registry  and  cancellations  of  the  policies 
of  the  company;  to  examine  statistics  and  tables,  and  to  make  all  the 
necessary  mathematical  and  actuarial  calculations  relating  to  premium 
rates,  dividends,  reserves  and  surrender  values,  forming  the  basis  on 
which  the  company  shall  take,  cancel  or  exchange  risks,  grant  or  purchase 
annuities  .  .  .  and  to  report  at  the  meeting  of  the  board  .  .  .  the  condi- 
tion of  the  affairs  of  the  company,  predicated  upon  an  actuarial  valuation 
of  the  obligations  of  the  company  and  of  all  its  assets,  contingent  and 
in  possession."  ^"^ 

Responsibility  is  fixed  as  to  the  operating  department  of  the 
New  York  Central.  In  addition  to  the  report  of  the  vice-presi- 
dent and  general  manager  previously  indicated,  such  reports  as 
these  are  required : 

"The  vice-president  and  general  manager  shall  .  .  .  make  reports  at 
such  times  and  in  such  form  as  may,  in  his  judgment,  be  necessary  to  ex- 
hibit the  efficiency  of  the  department."  ^^ 

"The  assistant  general  manager  .  .  .  shall  be  aided  by  ...  a  superin- 

*'  Statements  of  the  president  and  of  the  secretary  to  the  president  to 
the  writer,  June  8,  1916. 

"  Op.  cit.,  Sec.  15. 

«7  Op.  cit.,  Sec.  20. 

«8  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  R.  R.  Co. :  Organization  of  the 
Operating  Department,  1908,  p.  5. 


The  Administrative  Organization  91 

tendent  of  passenger  transportation  .  .  ."  (who)  "shall  be  responsible  for 
knowing  that  traffic  is  handled  promptly  and  without  unnecessary  delay."  «' 
"The  general  superintendent  .  .  .  shall  be  responsible  for  the  safe  and 
economical  movement  of  passenger  and  freight  traffic  and  for  the  main- 
tenance of  service  at  its  proper  standard  of  efficiency."  ^° 

In  addition  to  the  president's  monthly  report  on  finance  the 
board  of  directors  of  the  Pennsylvania  specifically  requires  re- 
ports from  heads  of  departments  and  their  assistants.  It  ex- 
pects them  to  be  familiar  with  the  details  of  the  company's  busi- 
ness. 

"The  vice-president  in  charge  of  finance  shall  keep  himself  generally  in- 
formed of  receipts  and  disbursements  of  the  treasury,  and  shall  have  gen- 
eral supervision  of  financial  matters  of  the  lines  owned  and  controlled 
by  the  company,  and  from  time  to  time  shall  make  such  report  to  the  presi- 
dent in  relation  thereto  as  may  be  necessary.  .  ,  ."  '^'^ 

"The  treasurer,  under  the  direction  of  the  vice-president  in  charge  of 
finance,  shall  keep  the  vice-president  in  charge  of  finance,  the  president, 
and  the  board  fully  advised  on  all  matters  connected  therewith.  He  shall 
annually  furnish  the  president  with  a  complete  statement  of  his  accounts 
for  the  preceding  fiscal  year,  and  at  such  other  times  as  the  vice-president 
in  charge  of  finance,  the  president,  the  finance  committee  or  the  board 
may  direct.  The  treasurer  shall  furnish  to  the  comptroller  a  daily  state- 
ment of  all  his  receipts  and  expenditures.  .  .  .  He  shall  report  to  the 
finance  committee,  at  each  of  its  stated  meetings,  for  the  information  of  the 
president  and  the  board,  the  receipts  and  disbursements  since  his  last 
report  and  the  balance  to  the  company's  credit."  ^^ 

"The  comptroller  shall  furnish  annually  and  currently,  to  the  executive 
officers  for  their  information,  and  that  of  the  board  of  directors,  such 
statements  of  accounts  and  statistics  relating  to  the  business  transactions 
and  affairs  of  the  company  ay  will  enable  them  to  be  properly  informed 
thereof."  " 

In  the  operating  department  of  the  Pennsylvania  the  general 
manager  is  required  to  report  as  follows : 

"The  general  manager  shall  keep  the  vice-president  in  charge  of  opera- 
tion, the  president,  and  the  board  fully  advised  of  all  occurrences  and 
transactions  of  importance  connected  with  his  department."  ^* 

Responsibility  is  indicated  in  no  uncertain  terms: 

"The  division  superintendents  shall  be  responsible  to  their  respective 
general  superintendents   for  the  maintenance  of   the  track,  bridges  and 

^9  Ibid.,  14.  i^Ibid.,  p.  22. 

« Ibid.,  p.  15.  "  Ibid.,  pp.  29-30. 

Ti  Ibid.,  p.  16.  ''*  Ibid.,  p.  47. 


92     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

buildings;  the  safe,  prompt  and  economical  movement  of  trains,  and  the 
proper  transaction  of  business  thereon.  They  shall  be  responsible  for  all 
expenses  incurred  in  connection  with  the  operation  of  their  respective 
divisions.  .  .  ."  ^^ 

In  the  purchasing  department : 

"The  purchasing  agent  shall  furnish  the  supplies  committee  such  in- 
formation and  reports  as  they  may  require.  He  shall  keep  himself  in- 
formed in  regard  to  the  amount  and  condition  of  materials  on  hand  at  all 
storage  points,  and  keep  in  his  office  a  complete  record  of  all  materials 
and  supplies  purchased,  the  amount  on  hand  at  the  end  of  each  month  and 
the  location  of  Uie  same.  .  .  ."  ''* 

In  the  general  regulations  under  the  heading  "appointments" 
the  Pennsylvanian  directors  make  the  following  provision  for 
holding  heads  of  departments  responsible: 

"The  appointment  of  all  employees  not  herein  provided  for,  and  the 
definition  of  their  powers  and  duties  shall  be  vested  in  the  heads  of  de- 
partments who  are  responsible  to  the  board  for  the  faithful  performance 
of  duty  by  all  the  employees  in  their  respective  departments." ''" 

Annual  reports  are  required  of  heads  of  departments  as  follows : 

"The  head  of  each  department  shall  make  to  the  president,  for  the  in- 
formation of  the  board,  a  complete  annual  report  of  the  affairs  under 
his  charge  during  the  year,  and  shall  report  to  the  president  or  the  board 
from  time  to  time  all  matters  of  importance  or  interest."  ''^ 

From  these  quotations  it  is  clear  that  the  directors  of  the 
Pennsylvania  expect  results  and  they  know  whom  to  hold  re- 
sponsible. Through  the  medium  of  adequate  reports  they  are 
able  to  exercise  control  over  their  executives.  They  adopt  a 
policy  of  "hands  off"  in  administrative  matters  but  demand  that 
executive  officers  keep  them  informed  on  matters  of  importance. 

We  may  turn  now  to  a  consideration  of  our  third  principle  of 
administrative  relationship.  This  asserts  that  genuine  profes- 
sional leadership  requires  that  the  chief  executive  and  his  as- 
sistants through  him  be  given  the  power  to  initiate  legislation. 

T8  Ibid.,  p.  59. 

"  Ibid.,  pp.  61-2. 

"  Ibid.,  p.  91. 

»8  Ibid.,  p.  92. 


The  Administrative  Organization  93 

It  maintains  that  unless  the  board  looks  to  its  expert  executives 
to  recommend  improvements  or  new  lines  of  development  it  is 
not  making  wise  or  efficient  use  of  professoinal  leadership.  Our 
interest  at  this  point  is  to  discover  what  provision  these  success- 
ful business  organizations  make  for  capitalizing  expert  advice  in 
the  development  of  new  policies  or  in  the  improvement  of  pres- 
ent policies. 

(3)  The  Initiative  in  Matters  of  Policy  Among  Business. Con- 
cerns. The  position  of  the  Wanamaker  Company  on  this  ques- 
tion is  expressed  in  the  quotation  previously  cited.  Not  only 
does  this  firm  look  for  initiative  from  its  executives,  but  it  is  the 
policy  of  the  business  to  encourage  initiative  throughout  the 
system.'' 

In  the  New  York  Telephone  Company  new  policies  are  pro- 
posed by  the  president.  Meritorious  suggestions  for  improve- 
ment made  by  assistants  and  subordinates  are  transmitted  to  exe- 
cutive officers.^" 

The  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company  is  possibly  less  pro- 
nounced in  its  attitude  toward  this  question  than  either  of  the 
other  business  concerns  here  considered.  Recommendations  are 
made  through  committees.  They  "shall  make  such  recommen- 
dations from  time  to  time  as  they  deem  proper."  However,  these 
committees  are  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  company  and  he 
is  an  ex-officio  member  of  all  except  the  auditing  committee.*^  In 
addition  he  is  required  to  report  in  writing  at  each  regular  meet- 
ing of  the  board,*^  presumably  with  suggestions  for  improve- 
ment. 

In  the  New  York  Central  the  initiative  given  executive  officers 
in  such  matters  as  the  budget  may  be  seen  from  the  rules  of  the 
operating  department : 

"The  vice-president  and  general  manager  .  .  .  shall  prepare  and  sub- 
mit .  .  .  each  year  a  budget  showing  the  requirements  of  the  property  and 
equipment  for  the  suceeding  year."  ^^ 

'8  Statement  by  assistant  general  manager  to  the  writer  June  8,  1916. 

80  Statement  by  the  secretary  to  the  president  made  to  the  writer  Tune  8, 
1916. 

81  op.  cit..  Sec.  6. 
"O/*.  cit.,  Sec.  15. 

•3  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  R.  R.  Co. :  Organization  of  the  Oper- 
ating Department,  1908,  p.  6. 


94     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

"The  vice-president  and  general  manager  .  .  .  shall  be  responsible  for 
the  economical  and  efficient  management  of  the  departments  under  his 
jurisdiction,  and  shall  report,  as  may  be  required,  upon  the  condition  of 
the  property  and  make  such  recommendations  as  he  may  deem  necessary 
to  promote  the  best  interests  of  the  company."  s* 

"The  assistant  general  manager  (of  transportation)  shall  make  such 
recommendations  to  the  vice-president  and  general  manager  in  regard  to 
additional  facilities  as  he  may  deem  advisable  to  improve  the  movement  of 
traffic"  85 

For  the  Pennsylvania  we  find  these  provisions : 

"The  president  shall  present  to  the  board  at  the  earliest  practicable 
date  a  report  showing  the  receipts  and  expenses  of  the  company  and  of 
leased  or  auxiliary  lines  for  each  month,  accompanied  by  such  suggestions 
for  improvements  and  additions  to  the  road  and  property  as  he  may  deem 
necessary."  ^s 

The  board  of  directors  expect  members  of  the  executive  staff 
to  procure  the  information  that  shall  indicate  the  direction  of 
policies  of  improvement. 

"The  assistant  to  the  general  manager  shall,  under  the  direction  of  the 
general  manager,  investigate  the  advisability  of  expenditures  for  new  or 
improved  facilities,  and  make  such  other  investigations  as  may  be  deemed 
necessary."  ^t 

"The  general  superintendent  of  transportation  shall,  under  the  direction 
of  the  general  manager,  .  .  .  make  recommendations  ...  to  the  general 
manager  in  regard  to  such  additional  facilities  as  may  be  required  to  im- 
prove the  movement  of  the  traffic.  .  .  ."  ^s 

"The  general  superintendent  of  motive  power  shall,  under  the  direction 
of  the  general  manager,  make  such  suggestions  to  the  respective  general 
superintendents  as  he  may  deem  necessary  for  the  efficiency  and  economy 
of  the  service."  ^^ 

"The  engineer  of  maintenance  of  way  shall,  with  the  approval  of  the 
chief  engineer  of  maintenance  of  way,  make  such  suggestions  to  the  gen- 
eral superintendents  as  may  promote  the  efficiency  and  economy  of  the 
service."  8° 

Thus  it  may  be  seen  that  the  board  of  directors  of  these  con- 
cerns definitely  look  tovi^ard  the  experts  they  employ  to  take  the 

«*  Op.  cit.,  p.  5. 
85  Ibid.,  p.  12. 

88  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Co. :  By-Laws  and  Organization,  1913.  Amend. 
to  1916,  p.  8,  Sec.  VIII— 4. 

87  Ibid.,  p.  48. 

88  Ibid.,  pp.  48-9. 

89  Ibid.,  p.  51. 
•0  Ibid.,  p.  52. 


The  Administrative  Organization  95 

initiative  in  recommending  changes  or  new  lines  of  development. 
It  indicates  a  deference  to  professional  leadership.  Leadership 
is  not  only  considered  as  possible  from  executive  officers  but  de- 
manded of  them.  In  every  instance  the  rules  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  New  York  Central  use  the  term  "shall"  and  not 
may. 

b.  Organization  Under  the  City-Manager  Type  of  Commission 

Government 

We  have  yet  to  consider  the  field  of  city  government.  The 
city-manager  plan  of  commission  government  is  a  direct  out- 
growth of  the  older  commission  form  of  government.  Its  devel- 
opment has  been  rapid,®^  possibly  due  to  its  ability  to  get  results. 
The  Commission  form  in  which  a  small  body  of  officials,  usually 
four  or  five,  each  in  charge  of  one  department  of  city  administra- 
tion, is  a  development  beyond  the  council  type  of  organization. 
It  centers  authority  and  responsibility  for  the  administration  of  a 
department  upon  one  man.  It  does  not,  however,  centralize  or 
coordinate  all  departments  under  one  head,  nor  is  the  administra- 
tion of  each  department  considered  as  a  strictly  professional 
undertaking. 

The  city-manager  plan  follows  the  three  principles  of  adminis- 
tration which  we  witnessed  in  operation  among  business  enter- 
prises. It  provides  for  a  centralized  administrative  organization 
by  coordinating  all  departments  under  a  single  head.  The  com- 
missioners as  individuals  retire  from  active  administration  of  de- 
partments. Authority  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  city-manager 
and  he  is  held  responsible  for  results. 

Chart  V  of  Dayton,  Ohio,  represents  the  form  of  organization 
under  this  type  of  city  government.  Controlling  and  directing 
authority  are  centered  in  the  chief  executive — the  city-manager, 
who  is  selected  for  his  position  because  of  his  administrative 
ability.  The  position  of  chief  executive  is  recognized,  just  as  it 
is  in  the  field  of  business,  as  one  demanding  expert  leadership. 
Provision  is  made  that  he  shall  not  be  hampered  by  lack  of 
authority  so  that  his  special  skill  for  which  the  city  pays  cannot 

WThe  International  Year  Book  for  1915  reports  seventy-four  cities 
that  had  adopted  and  two  that  had  abandoned  some  form  of  city-manager 
plan  up  to  Nov.,  1915. 


96     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

be  utilized.  It  is  in  accord  with  the  form  of  organization  found 
in  the  MinneapoUs  and  Denver  school  systems  and  in  contradis- 
tinction to  that  provided  by  most  boards  of  education.  The 
authority  granted  the  chief  executive  in  this  form  of  city  govern- 
ment may  be  seen  by  reference  to  sections  of  the  Dayton  charter 
prescribing  his  powers  and  duties: 


AoMiniSTRATlve  OROAHIZATlOn 

Or  The  City  Of  Daytom    Ohio 


if 


5  e 


o 

i: 

>  5 

a  = 

o 

P 

S5 

55 

|2 

II 

Chart  V 

"The  Commission  shall  appoint  a  city-manager  who  shall  be  the  admin- 
istrative head  of  the  municipal  government  ..." 
Powers  and  duties  of  the  city-manager.  .  .  . 

"To  see  that  the  laws  and  ordinances  are  enforced.  To  appoint  and, 
except  as  herein  provided,  remove  all  directors  of  departments  and  all 
subordinate  officers  and  employees  in  the  departments.  ...  To  exercise 
control  over  all  departments  and  divisions  created  herein  or  that  may 
be  hereafter  created  by  the  commission."  ^2 

"The  city-manager  may  without  notice  cause  the  affairs  of  any  depart- 
ment or  the  conduct  of  any  officer  or  employee  to  be  examined.  .  .  ."^' 

The  provisions  of  the  charter  observing  our  second  principle, 
whereby  the  chief  executive  and  his  assistants  are  to  be  held  re- 
sponsible for  results,  are  definite  and  pointed.     Accompanying  the 

92  Dayton,  Ohio :  "Proposed  Charter"  adopted  Aug.  12,  1913.    Sec.  47-48. 
«3/6»d..  Sec.  SO. 


The  Administrative  Organization  97 

grants  of  authority  indicated  above  are  provisions  definitely  cen- 
tering responsibility  and  requiring  that  adequate  statistical  reports 
shall  be  made  showing  past  achievements  and  the  present  status 
of  the  city's  business.  Moreover,  the  chief  executive  is  controlled 
through  a  detailed  budget.  The  .  .  .  "city-manager  .  .  .  shall 
be  responsible  for  the  efficient  administration  of  all  depart- 
ments." ®*  It  is  his  duty :  "To  keep  the  commission  fully  ad- 
vised as  to  the  financial  condition  and  needs  of  the  city.  .  .  '."  •' 
In  the  department  of  finance  such  accounting  and  reports  as 
follows  are  required: 

"The  city  accountant  shall  install  and  have  supervision  over  the  ac- 
counts of  all  departments  and  offices  of  the  city  .  .  .  (He)  shall  require 
daily  departmental  reports  of  money  receipts  and  the  disposition  thereof, 
and  shall  require  of  each,  in  such  form  as  may  be  prescribed,  current 
financial  and  operating  statements  exhibiting  each  transaction  and  the  cost 
thereof.  .  .  .  Accounting  procedure  shall  be  devised  and  maintained  for 
the  city  adequate  to  record  in  detail  all  transactions  affecting  the  acquisi- 
tion, custodianship,  and  disposition  of  values,  including  cash  receipts  and 
disbursements;  and  the  recorded  facts  shall  be  presented  periodically  to 
officials  and  to  the  public  in  such  summaries  and  analytical  schedules  in 
detailed  support  thereof  as  shall  be  necessary  to  show  the  full  effect  of 
such  transactions  for  each  fiscal  year  upon  the  finances  of  the  city  and 
in  relation  to  each  department  of  the  city  government,  including  distinct 
summaries  and  schedules  for  each  public  utility  owned  and  operated."  ^^ 

This  specific  provision  requiring  that  data  be  presented  in  such 
form  "as  shall  be  necessary  to  show  the  full  effect  of  such  trans- 
actions" is  one  which  boards  of  education  need  to  consider.  The 
reports  referred  to  in  Chapter  I  are  evidence  that  many  boards 
of  education  are  not  securing  data  in  such  forms  as  required  in 
this  form  of  city  government.  The  rules  of  boards  moreover 
are  evidence  of  the  fact  that  they  are  not  requiring  such  data. 

Does  the  form  of  administrative  organization  under  this  plan 
of  city  government  provide  for  our  third  principle  that  the  initi- 
ative shall  come  through  the  chief  executive  ?  The  city-manager 
is  given  the  initiative  in  the  matter  of  the  budget.  This  is  per- 
haps the  most  important  of  all  matters  in  which  he  could  ask  to 
be  given  the  initiative.     Through  it  he  must  propose  his  policies, 

9*  Ibid.,  Sec.  47. 
« Ibid.,  Sec.  48. 
»«/&»U,  Sec.  77,  78. 


98     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

and  through  it  he  sets  forth  his  program  of  public  service  or  im- 
provement. Public  service  depends  first  of  all  upon  money.  The 
budget  thus  becomes  not  only  the  means  through  which  the  chief 
executive  initiates  policies  but  it  becomes  the  effective  means  by 
which  the  commission  exercises  its  control  over  him. 

The  provisions  of  the  Dayton  charter  in  this  matter  may  be 
noted : 

"...  the  city-manager  shall  submit  to  the  commission  an  estimate  of 
the  expenditures  and  revenues  of  the  city  departments  for  the  ensuing 
year.  This  estimate  shall  be  compiled  from  detailed  information  ob- 
tained from  the  several  departments,  ,  ,  .  The  classification  of  the  esti- 
mate of  expenditures  .  .  .  shall  give  .  .  .  the  following  information: 

A  detailed  estimate  of  the  expense  of  conducting  each  department  as 
submitted  by  the  department. 

Expenditures  for  corresponding  items  for  the  last  two  fiscal  years. 

Expenditures  for  corresponding  items  for  the  current  fiscal  year,  includ- 
ing adjustments  due  to  transfers  between  appropriations  plus  an  estimate 
of  expenditure  necessary  to  complete  the  current  fiscal  year. 

Amount  of  supplies  and  materials  on  hand  at  the  date  of  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  invoice. 

Increase  or  decrease  of  requests  compared  with  the  corresponding  ap- 
propriations for  the  current  year. 

Such  other  information  as  is  required  by  the  commission  or  that  the 
city-manager  may  deem  advisable  to  submit. 

The  recommendation  of  the  city-manager  as  to  the  amounts  to  be 
appropriated  with  reasons  therefor  in  such  detail  as  the  commission  may 
direct. 

Sufficient  copies  of  such  estimate  shall  be  prepared  and  submitted,  that 
there  may  be  copies  on  file  in  the  office  of  the  commission  for  inspection 
by  the  public."  ^^ 

In  addition  to  the  initiative  given  the  city-manager  with  respect 
to  the  budget  he  is  given  the  power  and  it  becomes  his  duty : 

"...  To  recommend  to  the  commission  for  adoption  such  measures 
as  he  may  deem  necessary  or  expedient."  ^^ 

It  is  plainly  evident  that  administration  in  this  field  as  repre- 
sented by  Dayton  observes  the  three  fundamental  administrative 
priniciples  which  were  also  observed  in  the  field  of  business.  As 
in  the  field  of  business  the  form  of  organization  is  a  thoroughly 
centralized  or  coordinated  type. 

^Ubid..  Sec.  156. 
98/fctd.,  Sec,  48. 


The  Administrative  Organization  99 

4.    Summary 

From  conditions  which  may  exist  and  which  do  exist  in  the 
administration  of  some  city  school  systems  we  have  seen  that 
there  is  need  of  considering  administrative  organization.  Since 
the  community  pays  for  professional  leadership  in  the  person  of 
the  superintendent,  it  has  a  right  to  expect  that  he  will  be  given 
opportunity  to  assume  that  leadership.  The  rules  of  the  board  in 
many  cities,  however,  make  it  unlikely  that  his  professional 
ability  will  be  utilized.  The  problem  is  to  provide  a  form  of 
organization  which  will  permit  of  educational  leadership. 

We  found  two  distinct  types  of  administrative  organization: 

( 1 )  Centralized  or  coordinated.  The  organization  of  Minneapolis 
is  an  illustration  of  this  type.  It  is  one  in  which  the  heads  of  all 
departments  are  subordinate  to  the  superintendent  as  chief  execu- 
tive.    He  has  control  over  them  and  directs  them  in  their  duties. 

(2)  Divided  or  uncoordinated.  This  form  of  organization  is 
illustrated  by  that  of  Boston.  In  this  form  of  organization  the 
superintendent  is  only  one  of  several  heads.  He  has  no  essential 
control  over  any  but  the  instructional  department.  Between  these 
two  types  is  a  group  of  cities  whose  organization  is  centralized  in 
certain  respects  and  divided  or  decentralized  in  others.  The 
superintendent  may  control  some  other  important  executive  of- 
ficers, but  not  all,  or  he  may  control  a  number  of  them  with  re- 
spect to  certain  important  duties.  The  reasons  for  the  existence 
of  a  decentralized  organization  is  to  be  found  in  (a)  the  failure 
of  superintendents  to  demand  that  their  professional  prerogatives 
be  recognized,  and  (b)  the  failure  of  boards  to  recognize  the  pro- 
fessional aspects  of  educational  leadership. 

With  a  view  to  discovering  what  lessons  are  to  be  found  in  the 
fields  of  business  and  city  government  we  have  examined  ad- 
ministrative organization  there.  In  the  field  of  business  and  in 
the  city-manager  form  of  commission  government  we  found  the 
centralized  type  of  organization.  We  found  that  each  of  these 
observes  three  fundamental  principles  of  administration  which 
permits  of  expert  executive  leadership.  (1)  A  wide  scope  of 
authority  is  given  to  the  chief  executive  in  the  control  of  other 
executives  and  in  the  direction  of  their  duties.  (2)  As  a  counter- 
part to  authority,  responsibility  for  results  is  centered  in  the  chief 


100    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

executive.  The  board  of  control  retires  from  active  administra- 
tion but  retains  ultimate  control  through  the  budget  and  through 
reports  that  must  be  made  showing  the  achievements,  the  business 
or  financial  status  of  the  system.  (3)  In  matters  of  policy  the 
board  of  control  demands  that  the  chief  executive  and  his  assis- 
tants shall  take  the  initiative.  Expert  leadership  is  purchased  and 
utilized. 

We  are  taught  then  that  the  form  of  administration  which 
makes  for  efficiency  in  these  fields  is  one  that  is  centralized  or 
coordinated.  It  is  one  in  which  professional  leadership  is 
recognized  and  in  which  executive  functions  are  assigned  to  ex- 
perts. It  is  one  in  which  the  board  of  control  demands  results 
and  in  which  it  assumes  that  its  own  function  is  to  provide  the 
legislation  necessary  to  permit  the  achievement  of  those  possibili- 
ties which  are  indicated  by  its  leaders. 


CHAPTER  III 

AUTHORITY  GIVEN  THE  CHIEF  EXECUTIVE 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  consider  more  in  detail  the 
position  occupied  by  the  superintendent  with  reference  to  matters 
of  instruction  and  certain  matters  of  business  and  finance.  We 
are  interested  to  discover  to  what  extent  the  professional  aspects 
of  his  position  are  recognized  in  certain  specific  phases  of  city 
school  administration.  In  the  instructional  department  we  are 
interested  to  discover  what  control  is  given  the  chief  executive 
with  respect  to  the  teaching  staff.  In  the  business  department  we 
shall  endeavor  to  point  out  the  extent  of  the  authority  and  control 
given  him  over  building  construction  and  expenditures.  To  what 
extent  do  boards  of  education  consider  him  as  their  professional 
leader  and  how  do  they  hold  him  responsible  for  results? 

1.  Matters  of  Instruction 

a.  Control  of  the  Teaching  Force 
The  teaching  force  will  be  considered  from  the  viewpoint 
that  the  superintendent  as  chief  executive  officer  should  be  given 
wide  powers  with  respect  to  the  selection  of  the  teaching  staff, 
that  he  should  take  the  initiative  in  its  selection  and  that  the 
board  should  require  of  him  that  he  render  the  community  the 
best  services  of  which  he  is  capable  in  making  such  selection. 
This  is  in  keeping  with  the  principles  observed  in  the  previous 
chapter  in  the  field  of  business.  This  means  (1)  that  the  super- 
intendent shall  be  given  authority  to  select  teachers  from  what- 
ever source  he  can  procure  those  most  competent  to  render  pro- 
fessional service,  and  that  he  be  at  liberty  to  place  teachers  where 
in  his  judgment  they  can  be  of  most  service;  (2)  that  provisions 
shall  be  made  as  may  be  necessary  to  stimulate  professional 
growth  in  teachers;  (3)  that  he  be  required  to  use  every  available 
means  of  increasing  the  efficiency  of  teachers  before  recommend- 

101 


102    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

ing  their  dismissal;  and  (4)  that  dismissal  provisions  shall  not 
be  so  difficult  as  to  hinder  the  successful  operation  of  the  system. 

( 1 )  Appointment  of  teachers.  We  will  consider  in  this  section 
the  authority  conferred  upon  the  superintendent  by  rule  with  re- 
spect to  the  appointment  of  teachers,  adding  such  evidence  as 
found  in  recorded  proceedings  or  in  visiting.  As  previously 
stated  the  rules  are  to  be  considered  as  a  form  of  cojntract  be- 
tween the  superintendent  and  the  board.  The  rules  prescribe  the 
extent  of  the  authority  which  he  may  claim.  A  board  that  has 
come  to  recognize  the  professional  nature  of  the  task  of  selecting 
teachers  will  not  only  be  willing  but  demand  as  its  part  of  the  con- 
tract that  the  superintendent  render  the  community  the  profes- 
sional service  of  which  he  is  capable.  It  is  in  line  with  what  we 
witnessed  in  the  field  of  business.  Perhaps  the  -most  intensive 
study  of  this  subject  is  that  of  Dr.  Ballou.* 

Ballou  classifies  the  provisions  found  in  seventy  cities  under 
nine  different  methods  with  the  number  of  cities  in  which  each 
method  is  used  as  indicated  here. 

"Class  C 

Type  1.    The  board  makes  the  appointment 1 

Type  2.  A  committee  of  the  board  takes  the  initial  step  (nom- 
inates or  recommends  or  takes  some  similar  action)   and 

the  board  makes  the  appointment 3 

Type  3.  A  committee  of  the  board  makes  the  appointment,  sub- 
ject to  approval  by  the  board 1 

Class  B 

TjTJC  4.    The  superintendent  takes  the  initial  step,  and  the  board 

makes  the  appointment 12 

Type  5.  The  superintendent  takes  the  initial  step,  a  committee  of 
the  board  approves  (includes  nominates,  recommends, 
examines  into,  reports  on  and  all  similar  action  taken  by  a 
committee)  the  action,  and  the  board  makes  the  appoint- 
ment        38 

Type  6.  The  superintendent  takes  the  initial  step,  a  committee  of 
the  board  makes  the  appointment,  subject  to  approval  by 
the    board 6 

Class  A 
Type  7.    The  superintendent  makes  the  appointment  and  the  board 

approves    it 2 

*  The  Appointment  of  Teachers  in  Cities,  1915. 


Authority  Given  the  Chief  Executive  103 

Type  8.    The  superintendent  makes  the  appointment,  a  committee 

of  the  board  approves  it,  and  the  board  confirms  it 5 

Type  9.    The  superintendent  makes  the  appointment,  subject  only 

to  rejection  by  the  board 2 

Table  XIII  gives  the  results  from  the  cities  of  the  present  study. 
We  have  attempted  to  arrange  the  provisions  somewhat  with  ref- 
erence to  the  degree  of  authority  given  the  superintendent.^ 

TABLE  XIII 3 
Appointment  of  Teachers 

Rules    Min. 

Superintendent  appoints  and  the  board  may  disapprove:  20, 
61 2 

Superintendent  appoints  and  the  board  approves :    3,  4,   11, 

57,   62,   91 6 

3,  19,  25,  41,  57 •. 5 

Superintendent  must  approve  the  appointment:  30,  42,  45, 
48,  58-9,  60,  76,  79 9 

Superintendent  recommends  *  and  the  board  appoints :    9,  14, 
16,  18-9,  23-4,  46,  52.  63,  65.  69,  72-3,  86.  90,  92-3,  95,  98,  100    21 
7,  12,  14,  23,  27,  32,  34,  38,  45 9 

Superintendent  recommends  to  a  committee  and  the  commit- 
tee  appoints:    67 1 

Superintendent  recommends  to  a  committee  and  the  commit- 
tee recommends  to  the  board :  1,  5  ^-8,  12-3,  17,  25-6,  28-9, 
31-5.  37-9,  41,  44.  47,  49,  53,  55-6,  66,  77-8,  82-3,  89,  94, 

97,   99 36 

2,  4,  11,  16,  20,  22,  30-1,  35,  37,  49,  55-6,  59 14 

Committee  recommends:    2.  10,  15.  21-2,  36.  50,  71,  74-5,  81, 

84-5,  87-8 IS 

5,  6,  8,  9,  13,  15,  39,  47,  54,  58 10 

Board  appoints :    40,  80 2 

10,  28-9,  43 4 

Not  definitely  specified :  27,  43,  51,  54,  64,  68,  70,  96 8 

2  DiflFerence  in  provisions  found  for  the  same  cities  by  the  two  studies 
are  due  to  several  causes.  Some  changes  in  rules  have  occurred.  For  the 
reason  that  Dr.  Ballou  has  not  in  every  instance  indicated  the  precise 
year's  rules  used  it  is  not  possible  to  determine  in  every  case  where 
changes  have  been  made.  Other  changes  may  be  due  to  differences  in 
interpretation  and  still  others  to  the  fact  that  we  are  not  considering 
deviations  in  practice  from  the  actual  rules. 

3  Upper  rows  of  figures  refer  to  cities  of  Table  I,  lower  to  Table  II. 
*  Recommends  or  nominates. 

**  Board  of  superintendents  in  New  York  nominates. 


104    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

The  number  of  cities  in  which  it  is  not  considered  essential 
that  the  superintendent  take  the  initiative  or  participate  in  the  ap- 
pointment is  even  greater  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  cities 
than  found  by  Dr.  Ballou.  From  the  facts  of  the  two  studies  it  is 
evident  that  a  considerable  number  of  boards  have  yet  to  recognize 
the  professional  nature  of  the  task  of  selecting  teachers.  On  the 
other  hand  there  are  boards  which  value  professional  judgment  in 
this  matter.  In  Indianapolis  it  requires  a  four-fifths  vote  to  re- 
ject the  superintendent's  appointment,  and  in  New  Haven  a  vote 
of  five  out  of  seven.  In  six  others  the  board  approves  his  ap- 
pointments and  in  nine  other  cities  the  superintendent  must  ap- 
prove the  appointment.  Freeport,  N.  Y.,  requires  a  unanimous 
vote  to  elect  a  teacher  not  approved  by  the  superintendent. 

The  superintendent  has  the  initiative  in  nominating  or  recom- 
mending in  fifty-eight  additional  cities.  In  thirty-six  of  these 
his  recommendation  must  pass  through  the  intermediate  stage  of 
a  committee  or  be  upon  the  advice  or  in  consultation  with  a  com- 
mittee. However,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  although  the  super- 
intendent is  given  authority  to  nominate  or  recommend,  the  rules 
do  not  specify  that  the  committee  or  members  of  the  board  may 
not  propose  alternative  recommendations.  That  members  of  the 
board  do  sometimes  propose  alternatives  may  be  seen  from  the 
incident  cited  previously  which  occurred  in  Burlington,  Vt.  The 
method  adopted  by  the  board  in  this  case  was  in  direct  contrast 
to  a  statement  of  the  superintendent  reported  by  Ballou.^  Ap- 
parently the  superintendent  found  when  the  real  test  came  that 
the  board,  and  not  he,  made  the  appointment,  not  with,  but  con- 
trary to  his  recommendations. 

Confronted  by  an  obstinate  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
teachers  or  a  few  self-assertive  board  members  who  may  possibly 
have  been  teachers  at  one  time  or  who  have  political  debts  to  pay, 
what  authority  may  the  superintendent  claim  under  such  pro- 
visions as  the  following: 

"Each  sub-committee  on  visitation  shall  have  power  to  nominate  teach- 
ers for  its  respective  schools."  ^ 

"It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  committee  on  teachers  to  recommend  to 
the  board  the  election  or  dismissal  of  teachers.  .  .  .  "  ^ 

«  Op.  cit.,  p.  15. 

T  Fall  River  Rules,  1909,  p.  13. 

•  Cedar  Rapids,  la..  Rules,  1914,  p.  5. 


Authority  Given  the  Chief  Executive  105 

"The  committee  on  teachers  shall  examine  all  applications  and  creden- 
tials of  those  seeking  employment.  .  .  ,  Applicants  shall  have  the  right 
...  to  appear  personally  before  the  board  or  any  committee  thereof."' 

Those  cities  in  which  he  must  submit  his  recommendations  to 
a  committee  are  difficult  to  classify.  Committee  action  may  be 
perfunctory  as  observed  in  some  cities  visited  or  it  may  not. 
However,  provisions  which  permit  committee  intervention  offer 
dangerous  opportunities  for  nullifying  professional  leadership. 
Desired  results  may  be  made  impossible  of  achievement  because 
a  committee  brings  about  the  election  of  teachers  of  less  ability 
and  training  than  those  recommended  by  the  superintendent.  It 
is  difficult  to  find  a  justification  for  committee  participation  in 
the  appointment  of  teachers  except  in  cases  which  involve  the 
commitment  of  the  board  to  a  change  of  policy.  It  is  quite  pos- 
sible that  the  participation  of  a  committee  in  the  appointment  in 
some  cities  has  to  do  with  increasing  the  number  of  teachers  em- 
ployed. In  such  event  the  committee  may  consider  the  superin- 
tendent's recommendations  and  advise  with  him  on  the  wisdom 
of  making  additions.  If  committee  action  is  such  that  it  attempts 
to  pass  upon  the  qualifications  of  teachers  or  if  the  board  itself 
attempts  to  judge  professional  fitness,  it  is  an  attempt  to  sub- 
stitute lay  judgment  where  the  board  is  already  paying  for  pro- 
fessional judgment.  We  have  seen  that  among  established  busi- 
ness concerns  such  procedure  is  not  tolerated.  That  this  type  of 
procedure  is  expected  to  occur  in  some  school  systems  may  be 
seen  from  the  rules  of  such  cities  as  Fort  Worth,  Houston,^" 
Lockport,  N.  Y.,  and  Nashville. 

"The  committee  on  teachers  .  .  .  shall  as  often  as  possible  visit  the 
school  rooms  and  make  themselves  acquainted  with  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing, discipline  and  general  management  of  every  teacher."  ^i 

"It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  committee  on  teachers,  ...  to  inspect  and 
consider  the  applications,  credentials  and  other  evidences  of  the  qualifica- 
tions of  applicants.  ..."  12 

"The  board  of  education  shall  hold  an  oral  interview  with  appli- 
cants. .  .  .  "" 

»  Houston  By-Laws,  1914,  pp.  270,  281. 
"0/>.  cit. 

»i  Fort  Worth,  Rules,  1913,  Art.  I. 
12  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  Rules,  1910,  p.  7. 
"Nashville,  Rules,  1911,  p.  27. 


106    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Such  procedure  differs  materially  from  that  made  by  Brockton, 
Mass.,  Sioux  City,  la.,  and  Oakland,  Cal. 

"Each  candidate  receiving  50  per  cent  or  over  at  the  local  examination 
shall  be  and  those  receiving  less  may  be,  at  the  option  of  the  board,  visited 
at  their  own  schools  first  by  one  of  the  district  principals,  second  by  the 
superintendent,  and  third  by  a  second  district  principal,  in  case  the  opinion 
of  the  first  principal  and  the  superintendent  disagree, — or  by  two  district 
principals  in  case  the  superintendent  does  not  visit  the  teacher."  i* 

"The  superintendent  .  .  .  shall  examine  the  record  of  all  applicants,  .  .  . 
he  shall  when  the  teachers  committee  so  directs  inspect  the  actual  class 
room  work  of  the  applicant."  ^^ 

"It  is  hereby  made  the  duty  of  the  .  .  .  superintendent  ...  to  seek 
out  and  request  teachers  of  exceptional  abihty  to  make  applications.  .  .  . 
It  is  made  the  duty  of  the  .  .  .  superintendent  ...  to  gather  full  and 
complete  information  so  far  as  possible,  in  reference  to  each  and  every 
applicant."  ^^ 

At  least  two  of  our  cities.  Providence  and  Pawtucket,  R.  I., 
give  preference  in  the  appointment  of  teachers  to  resident  candi- 
dates : 

"...  due  preference  shall  be  given  to  eligible  applicants  who  are  at  the 
same  time  bona  fide  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Providence."  ^'^ 
"...  preference  shall  be  given  to  resident  applicants."  ^^ 

Such  provisions  are  a  direct  handicap  to  the  chief  executive. 
Results  are  expected  of  him  and  yet  a  premium  is  placed  upon 
local  candidates  with  lower  qualifications.  Residence  rather  than 
ability  is  prized.  Providence  is  one  of  the  cities  in  which  the 
superintendent  must  approve  all  appointments.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances a  superintendent  may  be  confronted  with  approving 
mediocrity  or  losing  active  support  of  a  group  of  citizens  who  are 
encouraged  by  the  rules  to  foster  selfish  interests.  In  either 
case  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  professional  skill  of  the  super- 
intendent will  not  yield  the  community  a  maximum  return. 

At  least  thirty  of  the  cities,  whose  rules  were  examined,  handi- 
cap the  superintendent  still  further  by  discriminating  against 
married  women.     Marriage  is  automatically  made  a  crime  de- 

"  Brockton,  Rules,  1915,  Art.  VIII. 
IS  Sioux  City,  Rules,  1912,  p.  6. 
"  Oakland,  Rules,  1910,  Art.  VIII. 
"  By-Laws,  1914,  Art.  VII. 
"  Rules,  1914,  Chap.  III. 


Authority  Given  the  Chief  Executive  107 

barring  from  further  service  as  a  teacher.  While  intended  to  de- 
bar those  who  may  have  a  tendency  to  neglect  school  duties  it 
prevents  the  superintendent  from  selecting  or  retaining  married 
women  of  ability  and  experience  who  are  in  a  position  to  render 
efficient  service.  It  thus  interferes  with  his  professional  initiative 
and  attempts  to  interfere  by  general  rule  in  a  matter  that  should 
be  left  to  his  judgment  in  each  individual  case. 

TABLE  XIV" 

Removal.  FOR  Masriage 

Total 
Cities:  3.  4.  8.  13,  23,  26-7,  29,  31.  33,  35-7.  39,  42.  44.  46.  51,  53,  58-60, 

67,  72,  76,  80,  83,  85-6,  88 30 

We  observe  from  the  data  given  that  no  small  number  of 
boards  are  confronted  with  the  problem  of  how  to  secure  a  max- 
imum of  professional  guidance  in  the  selection  of  teachers. 
Doubtless  the  same  causes  which  account  for  absence  of  central- 
ized administrative  organization  are  operative  here.  These  are 
probably  augmented  by  the  mistaken  idea  on  the  part  of  some 
board  members  that  the  schools  exist  to  afford  positions  for  rela- 
tives and  friends  either  personal  or  political  rather  than  for  the 
State  function  of  developing  future  citizens.  Restrictions  as  to 
the  field  from  which  superintendents  may  draw  are  additional 
causes.  The  failure  of  superintendents  to  demand  wider  author- 
ity may  be  due  to  a  reluctance  to  assume  the  responsibility  and  to 
a  desire  to  avoid  the  prejudices  which  may  arise  when  such  con- 
ceptions of  the  school's  function  are  prevalent.  Such  reluctance 
is  probably  increased  and  such  conceptions  are  probably  fostered 
by  the  fact  that  many  teachers  do  not  yet  recognize  the  profes- 
sional nature  of  the  teacher's  position.  They  seek  the  position 
rather  than  attempt  to  demonstrate  such  fitness  that  the  position 
shall  seek  them. 

(2)  Assignments  and  Transfer  of  Teachers.  Another  aspect 
of  control  over  the  teaching  force  is  that  which  comes  through 
the  authority  given  to  assign  or  transfer.  Unless  such  power  be 
given  to  the  chief  executive  he  is  not  at  liberty  to  distribute 
his   forces  as  bis  best  professional  judgment   would   demand. 

*8  Numbers  refer  to  cities  of  Table  I. 


108     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Teachers  not  placed  where  all  of  their  professional  ability  and 
training  can  be  called  into  service  may  scarcely  be  said  to  be 
working  at  their  maximum  of  efficiency. 

Table  XV  indicates  the  authority  specifically  granted  the  super- 
intendent in  the  one  hundred  cities  of  Table  I.  In  only  slightly 
more  than  one  half  of  the  cases  does  he  have  the  power  to  assign 
or  transfer  teachers  as  the  situation  in  his  professional  judgment 
demands. 

TABLE  XV  20 
Assignment  or  Transfer  of  Teachers 

Rules    Min. 
Superintendent,    with    or    without    board    approval:    3,    8, 
14,  16-7.  19,  20,  23-7,  29,  30,  32-3,  35-9,  43-4,  46,  48,  51.  54, 

58-60,  64,  67,  69-70,  76,  79,  91-2,  97 39 

20,  34-5,  57 4 

Superintendent,  with  approval  of  a  committee  of  the  board : 

4,  6,  7,  11-13,  42,  49,  57,  66,  74,  83,  87-8,  96 IS 

3,  9,  52 3 

Superintendent  recommends:    1,  5,  41,  45,  47,  50,  53,  68,  77, 

100    10 

2,  4,  33,  55,  59 5 

Committee  of  the  board  assign  or  recommend:   2,  28,  71,  78, 

81,  89  6 

5,  8,  10,  13,  56,  58 6 

Board  assigns :  34,  40,  62,  75,  82,  93-5,  98 9 

30    1 

Not  definitely  specified:    9,  10,  15,  18,  21-2,  31,  52,  55-6,  61,  ^^ 

63,  65,  72-3,  80,  84-6,  90.  99 21  \V 

An  intervening  committee  of  the  board  is  again  evident.  In 
at  least  twenty-eight  cities  the  rules  authorize  a  committee  to 
participate.  In  fifteen  the  committee  approves  the  assignments 
or  transfers  made  by  the  superintendent.  The  superintendent's 
recommendations  are  considered  by  a  committee  in  seven  of  the 
ten  cases.  In  fifteen  additional  cities  the  board  or  a  committee 
alone  are  specifically  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  assign- 
ment or  transfer  of  teachers.  In  the  remaining  twenty-one  cases 
we  are  left  in  doubt  as  far  as  any  specific  rule  is  to  be  found. 
When  the  minutes  are  read  we  find  little  difference  in  the  methods 
of  making  assignments  and  transfers. 

so  Upper  rows  of  figures  refer  to  cities  in  Table  I.  lower  to  Table  II. 


Authority  Given  the  Chief  Executive  109 

(3)  Other  Aspects  of  Control  of  Teachers.  In  a  study  such 
as  this  it  would  be  desirable  to  have  data  showing  the  distribution 
of  control  with  respect  to  salary  increases  and  promotion,  require- 
ments for  improving  teachers  in  service,  records  of  supervision, 
and  provisions  for  removal  of  teachers  for  each  city.  If  boards 
are  to  follow  a  policy  which  gives  the  chief  executive  extensive 
powers  they  may  expect  that  he  shall  exercise  such  authority 
judiciously.  If  the  superintendent  be  given  the  authority  to  select 
capable  teachers,  and  if  he  be  given  authority  to  place  such 
teachers  where  they  are  most  apt  to  render  efficient  service,  the 
board  of  education,  if  it  pays  adequate  salaries,  has  a  right  to  ex- 
pect results.  As  a  part  of  good  business  policy  it  would  appear 
that  if  the  superintendent  selects  the  teachers  provisions  should 
be  made  which  require  him  to  exercise  his  best  professional 
judgment.  If  removals  can  be  made,  as  in  a  number  of  cities, 
"at  any  time  for  want  of  success,"  the  superintendent  may  be 
neither  cautious  to  select  the  most  capable  teachers  nor  careful  to 
train  them  adequately  when  selected.  Unless  he  is  given  some 
control  over  salary  increases  or  promotions  he  may  not  be  able  to 
secure  a  wholesome  response  on  the  part  of  teachers  to  his  efforts 
for  their  improvement.  However,  to  compile  the  necessary  data 
would  require  a  greater  amount  of  time  than  is  available  for  the 
present  study.  We  shall  present  only  what  appear  to  be  some  of 
the  most  significant  facts  found  with  reference  to  certain  of  these 
matters. 

(a)  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service.  That  boards  are 
not  requiring  superintendents  to  utilize  every  opportunity  to  im- 
prove teachers  in  service,  and  that  they  are  not  offering  incentives 
to  such  improvement,  seems  to  be  evident  from  the  provisions 
which  bear  upon  this  point.  From  the  fact  that  we  find  some 
provisions  in  more  than  90  per  cent  of  the  cities,  we  have  evidence 
that  boards  do  require  that  some  efiforts  be  made  to  increase  the 
efficiency  of  the  staff.  Personal  conference  and  criticism  of  in- 
struction, teachers'  meetings,  and  observing  other  teachers  are 
most  commonly  found.  Other  provisions  found  are :  demonstra- 
tion teaching  by  superintendents,  supervisors,  principals,  or 
teachers;  testing  the  progress  of  pupils;  professional  reading; 
training  classes  taught  by  supervisors;  lesson  plans;  course  of 
study ;  educational  lectures ;  teachers'  associations ;  institutes ;  in- 


110    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

spection;  bulletins;  outlines;  exhibits  and  programs.  Leaves  of 
absence  for  study  on  half -pay,  as  Rochester  and  Newton  provide, 
or  salary  increases  for  approved  summer  school  attendance  as 
Framingham,  Mass.,  Wichita,  Moline,  111.,  and  Rochester  grant, 
are  rare.     Newton  makes  the  following  provision : 

"Any  teacher  who  has  served  continuously  in  the  Newton  schools  for 
a  period  of  not  less  than  seven  years  may  on  recommendation  of  the 
superintendent  be  granted  leave  of  absence  not  exceeding  one  year.  Dur- 
ing such  absence  the  teacher  shall  .  .  .  receive  a  monthly  salary  equal  to 
one-half  of  his  or  her  monthly  salary  of  the  preceding  year."  21 

Rochester  has  this  provision : 

"Any  teacher  or  principal  who  shall  have  served  the  city  of  Rochester 
for  seven  years,  may,  on  recommendation  of  the  superintendent  and  with 
the  approval  of  the  board  of  education,  be  granted  leave  of  absence  for 
study  or  travel.  .  .  .  Salary  during  such  leave  shall  be  one-half  the  appli- 
cant's regular  salary,  but  in  no  event  shall  it  exceed  one  thousand  dollars." 

The  results  of  such  study  or  travel  must  be  satisfactory  to  the 
superintendent.^^  Upon  his  recommendation  and  the  approval  of 
the  board,  salary  increases  for  summer  school  courses  are  granted 
as  follows: 

"...  for  the  single  year  following  such  work  the  sum  of  $50  shall  be 
added  to  the  salary  of  any  teacher,  principal  or  supervisor  who  pursues 
courses  in  institutions  outside  of  the  city  of  Rochester.  ..." 

For  courses  pursued  within  the  city  tuition  to  a  maximum  of 
$25  is  paid.^^  Wichita  adds  $5  per  month  to  the  salary  of  a 
teacher  for  approved  summer  school  courses  taken.''*  Framing- 
ham,  Mass.,  is  another  city  among  those  whose  minutes  were  re- 
ceived, which  adds  $50  to  the  salary  paid  if  the  summer  school 
work  is  approved  by  the  superintendent.^^  Such  incentives  to 
improve  the  quality  of  the  service  rendered  by  teachers  as  we 
find  in  the  cities  just  noted  have  not  been  utilized  by  most  boards. 
Their  worth  in  overcoming  an  attitude  of  indifference  to  growth, 
among  teachers  whose  tenure  may  be  relatively  permanent  and 
who  may  have  been  capable  teachers  when  first  appointed,  has  yet 
to  be  recognized  by  most  boards  of  education. 

21  Rules,  1911,  p.  10.  "Minutes,  Oct.  4,  1915. 

«2  Rules,  1915,  Art.  XV.  "  Minutes,  Dec.  6,  1915. 

**Ibid.,  Art.  XVI. 


Authority  Given  the  Chief  Executive  111 

Not  all  boards  give  the  superintendent  the  authority  with  ref- 
erence to  salary  increases  that  will  stimulate  teachers  to  render 
the  highest  quaHty  of  service.  Columbus/^  Joplin,  Mo.,^^  Lin- 
coln,^^  Minneapolis,^^  Seattle,^"  and  Topeka  ^^  are  among  those 
which  provide  for  increases  conditioned  upon  exceptional  merit. 
Minneapolis  has  this  provision : 

"Recommendations  for  increases  beyond  the  regular  maximum  are 
entirely  individual,  are  based  upon  and  adjusted  to  the  recognized  superior 
value  to  the  schools  of  the  service  of  the  teacher  concerned." '2 

Joliet,^'  Lincoln,^*  Moline,^^  St.  Joseph,^°  and  Topeka  ^^  pro- 
vide additional  salary  increments  for  approved  study  and  travel. 

(b)  Records  of  Supervision.  One  means  a  board  may  employ 
to  assure  itself  that  the  superintendent  is  attempting  to  give  the 
community  the  best  of  his  services  is  the  records  of  supervision 
which  it  requires  him  to  present.  It  may  require  him  to  demon- 
strate the  results  of  such  supervision  through  the  records  kept 
and  reports  made.  However,  the  opportunity  to  exercise  this 
means  of  control  over  the  chief  executive  and  his  supervisory 
staff  of  assistants  has  as  yet  been  little  realized  by  boards.  This 
is  indicated  from  Table  III.  In  some  cases  superintendents  re- 
port such  meaningless  matters  as  "the  number  of  visits"  by  super- 
visors. Rarely  do  they  report  the  achievements  of  supervisors, 
teachers,  or  pupils.^^  In  few  instances  do  the  rules  specify  re- 
ports which  might  be  interpreted  as  requiring  records  of  super- 
vision, or  reports  upon  the  achievements  of  supervisors,  princi- 
pals, teachers  or  pupils. 

(c)  Removal  of  Teachers.  Teachers  may  be  removed  at  any 
time  for  want  of  success  in  a  number  of  cities.  Some  discharge 
on  two  weeks'  or  thirty  days'  notice,  others  are  found  where  con- 
tract terms  must  be  observed.  Still  others  are  found  where 
teachers  can  be  removed  for  cause  only.  In  at  least  seventeen 
cities,  teachers  may  be  removed  at  pleasure  of  the  board,  in  five 
more,  upon  two  weeks'  notice,  and  in  six  upon  thirty  days'  notice, 

2«  Rules,  1910—413.  "  Rules,  1912,  p.  25. 

"  Rules,  1915,  pp.  82-83.  84  Report,  1914-15,  p.  28. 

28  Report,  1914-15,  p.  28.  86  Rules,  1915,  p.  83. 

2»  Rules,  1915— VII,  c.  S.  se  Rules,  1913,  p.  43. 

80  Rules,  1908,  Art.  XIII.  s7  Rules,  1914,  p.  22. 

81  Rules,  1914,  p.  22.  ss  Tables  III  and  IV. 

82  Rules,  1915,  VII,  c.  5. 


112    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

in  each  case,  for  want  of  success.  Teachers  may  be  removed  at 
any  time  in  Columbus,  Evansville,  Fall  River,  Fargo,  Greeley, 
Holyoke,  Joliet,  Lockport,  New  Orleans,  Newport,  Newton,  Oak- 
land, Pine  Bluffs,  Providence,  St.  Louis,  Topeka,  and  Winston — 
Salem.  Covington,  Fort  Worth,  Louisville,  New  Haven,^^  and 
Portland,  Ore.,  dismiss  upon  two  weeks'  notice.  Beverly,  De- 
troit, Grand  Rapids,  Milton,  Nashville,  and  Waltham  reserve  the 
right  to  dismiss  upon  thirty  days'  notice.  A  number  of  these, 
however,  require  that  a  teacher  desiring  to  resign  shall  give  the 
board  a  longer  time  of  notice  than  the  board  expects  to  give  the 
teacher  in  return.  With  such  provisions  for  easy  removal,  a 
means  is  afforded  for  disposing  of  incompetent  teachers,  but  there 
is  also  a  danger  that  it  may  not  be  conducive  to  the  greatest  care 
in  the  selection  of  teachers.  On  the  other  hand  where  teachers 
can  be  removed  only  for  cause,  as  in  New  Jersey  after  three  years* 
service,***  the  superintendent  may  be  prevented  from  securing  de- 
sirable results  through  the  presence  of  incompetent  or  indolent 
teachers.  ^ 

h.  Text-Books  and  Courses  of  Study 

(1)  Selection  of  Text-Books.  The  provisions  made  for  the 
selection  of  text-books  are  summarized  in  Table  XVI.  In  such 
a  professional  matter  as  the  selection  of  text-books  it  is  sur- 
prising to  find  no  small  portion  of  cities  in  which  the  board  does 
not  deem  it  necessary  to  specify  that  its  chief  executive  shall  take 
part. 

TABLE  XVI  *i 

Selection  of  Text-Books 

Rules    Min. 
Superintendent  selects — aboard  approval  may  or  may  not  be 

specified:    11,  52,  61,  72,  76,  94-5,  97 8 

18 1 

Superintendent  recommends  and  board  approves:    1,  6,  9,  16, 

24-7,  77,  82,  93,  100 12 

3,  17,  19,  21,  31,  34,  45-6,  53 9 

**  Superintendent  dismisses  at  his  discretion,  but  the  board  may,  by  a 
vote  of  five  of  the  seven  members,  reverse  his  decision. 

*o  School  Laws,  1914,  Sec.  130. 

"  The  upper  row  of  figures  under  each  form  of  provision  refers  to  cities 
of  Table  I  and  the  lower  to  those  of  Table  II. 


Authority  Given  the  Chief  Executive  113 

Superintendent  recommends  to  a  committee,  committee  rec- 
ommends to  board:    2.  4.  10,«  12,  15.  17,  20,  28-9.  31-4, 
27,  39,  41,  44-5,  47,  49,  50,  55,  59,  60,  62-3,  68-9,  75,  87,  91. .     31 
2,  11,  38,  55,  60 5 

Members  of  the  department  of  instruction  officially  partici- 
pate: 5,  8,  10,*2  19,  23,  42,  53,  74,  84,  98 10 

6,  47,  59 3. 

Committee  of  the  board  recommends,  superintendent  has  no 
official  authority:    7.  13.  21-2.  35-6.  38,  40.  48,  56-8,  66-7. 

71,  73,  78,  81,  83,  85-6,  89,  90 23 

4,  5,  8-10,  13,  49 7 

Board  authorizes :    3,  18,  30,  65,  70,  79,  80,  99 8 

12,  50,  57 3 

Not  definitely  specified :    14,  43,  46,  51,  54,  64,  88,  92,  96 9 

In  ten  cities  the  rules  specify  that  officers  or  other  representa- 
tives of  the  instructional  department  shall  participate  in  the  selec- 
tion of  text-books.  In  New  York  the  board  of  superintendents 
rather  than  the  superintendent  recommends,  a  committee  con- 
siders, and  the  board  approves.*^  In  Baltimore  the  superinten- 
dent and  assistant  superintendents  advise  the  board.  If  divided 
in  their  recommendations  the  board  makes  the  final  decision.** 
The  superintendent  apparently  has  no  more  voice  than  an  as- 
sistant superintendent.  The  board  of  superintendents  in  Boston 
report  to  the  superintendent  on  proposed  changes  and  he  recom- 
mends to  the  board.*'^  The  superintendent  at  Paterson  appoints 
a  committee  of  principals  approved  by  the  board.  A  com- 
mittee of  the  board  recommends  to  the  board  from  the  books 
selected  by  a  committee  of  principals.*®  In  Portland,  Me.,  a  com- 
mittee of  principals  and  teachers  report  to  the  superintendent, 
who  transmits  the  recommendation  of  this  committee  with  his 
own  to  a  committee  of  the  board,  who  report  to  the  board.*^  In 
Grand  Rapids  while  no  nominations  can  be  made  for  grade  text- 
books except  by  the  superintendent  who  recommends  to  a  com- 

*2  Superintendent  recommends  grade  texts  to  a  committee  of  the  board. 
For  high  school  texts  the  superintendent,  principal  of  the  high  school  and 
principal  of  the  "union  school"  form  a  committee  which  recommends  to  a 
committee  of  the  board.  A  majority  of  this  committee  may  recommend 
on  its  own  initiative.    Rules  1913 — 30. 

*3  By-Laws,  1914,  p.  20. 

**  Rules,  1913,  p.  9. 

*5  Proposed  Rules,  1915,  Sec.  59,  68. 

"  Rules,  1911,  Sec.  30. 

<T  Report,  1914,  p.  20. 


114    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

mittee  of  the  board,  he  has  no  such  authority  in  the  selection  of 
high  school  texts.  The  superintendent  and  two  high  school 
principals  recommend  to  a  committee  of  the  board.  A  majority 
of  the  three  may  recommend  without  the  consent  of  the  other. 
The  board  committee  recommends  to  the  board.**  In  New  Or- 
leans the  superintendent  transmits  the  views  of  assistant  superin- 
tendents, principals,  and  teachers  with  his  own  to  the  board." 
Supervisors  in  Joplin  make  "recommendations  as  to  changes"  to 
the  superintendent.  A  committee  of  the  board  apparently  par- 
ticipates though  the  provision  is  somewhat  vague.^** 

The  board  in  Providence  ®^  provides  for  both  committee  partici- 
pation and  teacher  participation: 

"Every  proposition  or  request  for  a  change  ...  in  text-books  .  .  .  for 
use  in  the  day  schools,  shall  be  submitted  to  the  committee  in  charge  of  the 
schools  to  be  affected  by  the  proposed  change,  unless  the  proposed  change 
shall  affect  a  special  branch  of  instruction,  and  in  that  case  it  shall  be 
submitted  to  the  committee  in  charge  of  that  branch  of  instruction.  Such 
committee,  if  they  shall  deem  the  change  advisable,  shall  submit  the  mat- 
ter to  the  school  committee,  and  thereupon  the  matter  shall  be  submitted 
to  a    ...  committee  of  teachers  to  be  constituted  as  follows : 

For  books  ...  to  be  used  in  the  primary  schools  only,  such  committee 
of  teachers  shall  consist  of  five  members  and  shall  be  appointed  by  a 
majority  of  the  principals  of  the  primary  schools  ..." 

Similar  provisions  are  made  for  the  appointment  of  a  com- 
mittee of  teachers  in  grammar  and  high  schools.  In  the  case  of 
special  branches  the  committee  in  charge  of  such  branch  itself 
appoints  the  committee  of  teachers. 

"The  report  of  such  committee  of  teachers  shall  be  submitted  to  the 
superintendent  and  he  shall  transmit  it,  together  with  his  recommenda- 
tion ...  to  the  committee  in  charge  .  .  .  who  shall  report  the  matter 
to  the  school  committee  with  their  recommendation." 

Johnstown,  Pa.,  provides  for  teacher  participation  and  also  en- 
courages activity  on  the  part  of  publishers: 

"...  the  superintendent  shall  request  publishers  to  supply  samples  for 
each  building  in  the  city,  and  literature  and  briefs  of  the  merit  and  adapta- 
bility of  such  books.  The  superintendent  shall  be  held  responsible  for 
the  proper  distribution  of  such  books,  literature,  and  briefs  among  all 

"  Rules,  1913,  Sec.  30.  »<>  Rules,  1915,  Sec.  I,  IV. 

«  Rules,  1913— XII.  "  By-laws,  1914,  p.  23f . 


Authority  Given  the  Chief  Executive  115 

the  buildings  of  the  city,  and  for  the  opportunity  of  every  teacher  affected 
to  examine  these  books.  He  shall  require  each  teacher  ...  to  deposit  in 
his  office  a  sealed  envelope  in  which  each  teacher  indicates  a  first  and 
second  choice,  with  reasons  in  full  for  first  choice.  A  committee  of  five 
principals,  appointed  by  the  principals  of  the  city  at  a  meeting  conducted 
by  the  superintendent  of  schools  shall  canvass  and  tabulate  the  vote. 
The  superintendent  shall  then  organize  the  arguments  of  the  teachers  in 
behalf  of  the  books  that  receive  first  choice  and  present  the  same,  together 
with  his  own  recommendation  and  the  tabulated  report  of  the  committee 
of  principals,  to  the  board  ..."  ^i* 

A  committee  of  the  board  participates  in  the  selection  of  text- 
books in  sixty  cities  of  the  ninety-one  whose  rules  lend  themselves 
to  interpretation.  In  addition  to  the  six  instances  just  indicated 
it  considers  the  recommendation  of  the  superintendent  in  thirty 
others,  considers  the  texts  prescribed  by  the  superintendent  in  St. 
Louis,®^  and  may  initiate  of  its  own  accord  in  twenty-three  cities. 
In  two  other  cases  of  committee  participation  besides  Grand 
Rapids  and  St.  Louis  the  rules  specify  that  the  selection  must  be 
approved  by  the  superintendent.  These  are  Lockport,  N.  Y.,°' 
and  Holyoke,  Mass.^*  In  Lockport  the  selection  must  likewise  be 
approved  by  the  committee.  We  see  no  reason  why  a  committee 
could  not  "play  politics"  under  such  circumstances  if  it  so  desired. 

The  superintendent  recommends  direct  in  twelve  cases  and  is 
given  authority  to  select  or  "prescribe"  in  eight  others.  Three 
of  the  latter,  Montgomery,"  Ala.,  Freeport,  N.  Y.,=«  and  St. 
Louis,^^  require  board  approval.  Altogether  he  initiates  sup- 
posedly, exclusive  of  those  in  which  he  selects  and  in  which  others 
of  his  department  participate,  in  forty-two  cities.  We  need  to  be 
cautious  in  one  respect  however.  In  those  cities  in  which  his 
recommendations  are  made  to  a  committee,  there  is  little  assur- 
ance that  the  committee  will  not  present  alternative  recommenda- 
tions. 

In  the  selection  of  text-books  we  have  witnessed  still  another 
respect  in  which  many  boards  have  yet  to  recognize  the  profes- 
sional aspects  of  educational  leadership.  While  the  superinten- 
dent is  the  one  to  whom  the  board  looks  for  educational  results 
we  see  a  tendency  for  the  board  to  retain  not  only  the  function  of 

"♦Rules,  1912,  Amend.  1915.  "Rules,  1913,  pp.  10-11. 

«  Rules,  1914,  p.  10.  «  Rules,  1914,  p.  2. 

"  Rules,  1910,  27,  97.  se  Rules,  1914,  p.  10. 


116    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

determining  the  texts  to  be  used,  but  even  the  authority  to  initiate 
changes.  We  do  not  for  a  moment  beheve  that  in  all  of  the  cities, 
or  even  in  the  larger  part  of  them,  the  superintendent  does  not 
take  the  initiative.  The  significant  fact  is  that  he  is  not  given 
such  authority  by  rule.  A  second  tendency  observed  is  that  of 
giving  his  professional  assistants  authority  to  participate  in  the 
selection  or  even  to  set  aside  his  recommendations.  Any  pro- 
vision which  encourages  divided  recommendations  as  in  Baltimore, 
or  the  high  schools  of  Grand  Rapids,  permits  interference  with  the 
superintendent  in  giving  the  community  the  full  benefit  of  his 
professional  ability.  Unless  his  approval  is  required  where 
teachers  participate  in  the  selection  of  texts  an  obstacle  is  placed 
in  the  way  of  his  leadership.  Recommendations  are  made  by  em- 
ployees and  subordinate  officers  in  the  field  of  business  but  they 
are  transmitted  through  executive  channels  to  the  chief  exec- 
utive. 

The  instances  found  of  board  action  on  text-books  in  the  sixty 
cities  whose  minutes  were  read  do  not  bear  out  the  contention  of 
those  who  opine  that  committees  exercise  but  little  the  authority 
given  them  in  the  selection  of  text-books.  The  second  row  of 
figures  in  Table  XVI  referring  to  cities  of  Table  II  give  the  dis- 
tribution of  twenty-eight  cases  found.  Des  Moines  affords  an 
illustration  of  how  a  committee  of  the  board  may  participate  in  an 
administrative  and  professional  matter. 

"Your  instruction  committee,  having  charge  of  the  selection  of  text- 
books, submits  the  following  respecting  the  adoption  of  music  readers. 

Early  in  May  a  committee  of  twenty-two  was  appointed,  representing  all 
of  the  grades  in  the  system.  The  publishing  houses  interested  were  noti- 
fied of  the  membership  of  this  committee  and  were  authorized  to  visit 
its  members  during  a  particular  week.  On  June  1st  the  representatives 
of  the  various  publishing  houses  were  not  admitted  and  after  a  careful  and 
complete  discussion  of  the  various  books  submitted  a  secret  ballot  was 
taken  in  which  each  member  of  the  committee  was  directed  to  vote  for  a 
first  and  second  choice.  These  ballots  were  sealed  and  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  chairman  of  the  instruction  committee  where  they  remained  until 
some  ten  days  ago.  The  votes  of  the  special  committee  are  as  fol- 
lows :"  5T 

It  will  be  seen  that  a  premium  is  placed  on  the  persuasive 
powers  of  book  agents  rather  than  upon  independent  professional 

BTjuly  27,  1915. 


Authority  Given  the  Chief  Executive  117 

judgment.  Their  ability  to  persuade  teachers  who  may  or  may 
not  be  competent  judges  and  not  the  authority  of  the  chief  exec- 
utive is  the  deciding  factor. 

(2)  Preparation  of  Course  of  Study.  That  it  should  be  neces- 
sary to  point  out  the  need  of  professional  skill  and  judgment  in 
the  selection  of  the  course  of  study  may  seem  to  those  experienced 
in  matters  educational  as  preposterous.  Yet  a  perusal  of  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  boards  of  education  indicates  that  by  no 
means  have  all  boards  reached  the  point  where  they  are  ready  to 
acknowledge  the  need  of  the  professionally  trained  educator  in 
shaping  the  course  of  study.  It  is  not  infrequent  to  find  this 
task  attempted  by  a  committee  of  the  board  or  even  by  the  board 
itself. 

"This  committee  shall  take  into  careful  consideration  every  proposition 
to  change  the  course  of  study,  and  no  such  proposition  shall  be  acted  upon 
by  the  board  until  it  has  been  referred  to  this  committee  and  reported 
upon."  28 

"The  committee  on  text-books  shall  consider  and  report  in  writing  upon 
all  propositions  for  any  change  in  the  course  of  studies  except  as  pro- 
vided in  Sec.  7."  Sec.  7  reads :  "The  committee  on  music,  drawing,  and 
writing  shall  have  charge  of  their  respective  branches,  and  shall  recom- 
mend such  changes  and  improvements  as  may  be  needed."  ^^ 

"It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  committee  on  course  of  study  and  text- 
books to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  general  character  and  purpose  of 
the  courses  of  instruction  being  pursued  in  the  schools ;  to  carefully  inves- 
tigate their  general  object  and  probable  effect  upon  the  futute  lives  and 
characters  of  the  children  of  this  district;  and  to  recommend  such  changes 
as  may  be  deemed  advisable."  ^<* 

"The  board  shall  exercise  exclusive  control  over  the  curriculum  .  .  . 
determining  what  branches  may  be  included  and  the  extent  to  which  the 
teaching  of  each  of  these  branches  may  be  carried."  ^^ 

Committee  action  is  necessarily  prefunctory  in  large  measure 
as  well  as  non-professional  in  the  case  of  the  course  of  study. 
The  amount  of  time  consumed  in  the  preparation  of  a  modern 
course  of  study  is  an  amount  larger  than  a  member  of  the  board 
could  give  and  still  have  time  to  attend  to  important  duties. 
What  useful  purpose  a  committee  on  course  of  study  can  serve, 

88  Waterbury,  Conn.,  Rules  and  Regulations,  1914.    Ch.  I,  Sec.  10. 
"  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Rules  of  the  School  Committee,  1911.    Ch.  11,  Sec. 
6,  7. 
eojoliet,  111.,  Manual,  1912,  p.  12. 
•1  Cedar  Rapids,  la.,  Rules  and  Regulations,  1914,  XVI— I. 


118    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

other  than  to  consider  with  the  superintendent  the  advisability  of 
adding  new  subjects  which  may  require  additional  expenditures, 
is  difficult  to  conceive. 

Table  XVII  indicates  the  provisions  found  for  controlling  the 
course  of  study.  If  this  table  is  compared  with  Table  XVI  we 
note  some  evidence  that  the  preparation  of  the  course  of  study 
is  considered  more  as  a  professional  matter  than  the  selection  of 
text-books.  The  largest  differences  are  in  two  groups,  that  in 
which  the  superintendent  recommends  to  the  board,  and  that  in 
which  a  committee  recommends  to  the  board  without  any  official 
authority  to  initiate  being  given  to  the  superintendent. 

TABLE  XVII 62 

Course  of  Study 

Rules    Min. 

Superintendent  prepares — ^board  approval  may  or  may  not  be 

required:  3,  6,  9,  11,  20-1,  23,  30,  61,  80,  92-3,  95,  97 14 

4,    14 2 

Superintendent  recommends  and  board  approves :    1,  16,  24-7, 

44.  51-2.  54.  60.  65,  67-9.  72-3.  76-7.  82.  88  94,  99,  100 24 

12,  19,  21,  45 4 

Superintendent  recommends  to  a  committee,  and  committee 
recommends  to  board :  2.  4.  8.  10,  12-3,  15,  17,  29.  31-4,  39, 

41.  45.  49.  SO,  55.  57,  59,  62,  66.  74.  87.  90.  91 27 

6,  9,  10,  20 4 

Members  of  the  department  of  instruction  officially  partici- 
pate:  5,  19 2 

59   1 

Committee  of  the  board  recommends — superintendent  has  no 
official  authority:    35-6.  38.  40.  47-8,  56.  58.  71.  75.  78, 

83,    85-6 14 

8,  58 2 

Board  authorizes  or  prescribes :    18,  28.  37,  70,  79,  81 6 

7    1 

Not  definitely  specified:    7,  14,  22,  42-3,  46,  53,  63-4,  84,  89, 
96,  98 13 

Of  the  fourteen  cities  in  which  the  board  gives  the  committee 
on  course  of  study  initial  authority  to  recommend  changes,  twelve 

«2  Boards  commonly  do  not  distinguish  between  the  use  of  the  terms, 
"Course  of  Study"  and  "Curriculum."  In  the  absence  of  any  distinction, 
whatever  provision  was  found  is  here  included  under  Course  of  Study. 
Upper  rows  of  given  figures  refer  to  cities  of  Table  I,  lower  to  those  of 
Table  II. 


Authority  Given  the  Chief  Executive  119 

fall  within  the  corresponding  group  in  Table  XVI.  Of  the 
twenty  in  the  first  two  groups  of  the  table  on  selection  of  text- 
books all  are  found  within  the  first  two  groups  of  the  table  on  the 
course  of  study.  This  indicates  that  boards  which  specify  that 
the  superintendent  of  schools  shall  have  authority  either  to  initiate 
changes  in  or  select  text-books,  tend  to  give  him  similar  powers 
in  the  preparation  of  the  course  of  study.  The  difference,  then, 
between  the  two  tables  with  respect  to  the  authority  and  initiative 
given  to  the  superintendent  by  rule,  does  not  appear  to  be  acci- 
dental. Boards  have  chosen  to  retain  control  over  the  selection 
of  text-books  in  a  larger  number  of  cities  than  in  the  case  of  the 
course  of  study. 

The  percentage  of  cases  in  which  the  board  has  yet  to  fully 
acknowledge  educational  leadership  with  respect  to  the  course  of 
study  is  not  small.  A  committee  of  the  board  participates  in  at 
least  forty-three  out  of  eighty-seven  cities  whose  rules  lend  them- 
selves to  interpretation.  Baltimore  makes  the  same  unfortunate 
division  of  responsibility  in  case  of  the  course  of  study  that  it 
does  in  the  case  of  text-books.*^  New  York  has  an  unusual 
provision  in  that  the  power  to  initiate  changes  rests  with  a  com- 
mittee of  the  board.  It  must  submit  proposed  changes  to  the 
board  of  superintendents  for  approval,  but  may  by  a  three-fourths 
vote  adopt  without  approval.®*  In  neither  of  these  cities  can  the 
board  be  said  to  have  made  its  superintendent  the  authoritative 
head  of  the  school  system  with  respect  to  the  course  of  study. 
He  must  share  his  authority  with  others. 

The  superintendent  prepares  or  prescribes  the  course  of  study  in 
fourteen  cities.  In  New  Haven,*^  however,  he  must  consult  with 
a  committee  of  the  board.  He  recommends  direct  to  the  board 
or  arranges  with  board  approval  in  twenty-four  more  cases.  In 
twenty-seven  others  he  apparently  has  the  initiative  but  a  com- 
mittee intervenes. 

In  one  form  of  practice  often  found  among  cities  visited  the 
superintendent  appoints  committees  composed  of  teachers,  princi- 
pals, and  supervisors  to  assist  him  in  preparing  courses  of  study. 
It  is  not  unusual  to  find  several  committees  each  working  on  dif- 
ferent subjects.     This  method  of  preparing  the  course  of  study 

«3  Rules,  1913,  p.  9. 
««  Rules,  1914,  p.  20. 
"Rules,  1910,  p.  12. 


120    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

is  illustrated  in  Lincoln,  Nebraska.     The  following  quotation  from 
the  superintendent's  statement  described  the  procedure :  ®® 

"Originally  a  committee  (of  teachers)  was  appointed  (by  the  superin- 
tendent) to  group  the  subject  matter  of  Geography  as  it  might  apply 
best  to  the  various  grades.  This  committee  outlined  first  a  minimum  of 
geographical  facts  which  ought  to  be  acquired  in  each  grade ;  second, 
a  series  of  geographical  problems  which  spring  most  naturally  from  our 
own  community  life  and  to  which  geographical  knowledge  and  processes 
might  apply.  Their  outline  was  used  tentatively  during  a  school  year.  A 
questionnaire  was  sent  to  each  of  the  principals  who  replied  to  it  after 
holding  conference  with  her  teachers  of  Geography.  Each  principal  also 
sent  in  the  best  samples  of  plan  books  and  of  motivated  problems  which 
had  grown  up  in  her  class  room  work.  These  are  being  incorporated 
with  such  of  the  original  outlines  as  have  proved  entirely  satisfactory  after 
making  wise  deductions  and  eliminations." 

What  may  be  considered  a  new  development  upon  this  method 
of  preparing  courses  of  study  occurs  in  a  few  cities.  Reading,  in 
the  preparation  of  its  course  of  study  in  arithmetic,  sought  to  pro- 
cure the  services  of  the  best  professional  judgment  available. 
The  superintendent  with  the  assistance  of  teachers  and  super- 
visors prepared  a  course  of  study.  This  course  when  thus  pre- 
pared represented  the  unaided  professional  judgment  of  the 
teachers,  supervisors,  and  superintendent.  The  course  was  then 
submitted  to  a  recognized  specialist  in  courses  of  study  for  criti- 
cism and  suggested  changes  which  in  his  professional  judgment 
were  warranted.®'^  This  represents  a  type  of  development  that 
may  occur  where  boards  of  education  give  the  superintendent 
wide  authority  in  the  preparation  of  courses  of  study. 

2.  Matters  of  Business 

To  discover  what  initiative  and  authority  the  superintendent- 
has  in  matters  of  business,  certain  phases  of  the  business  ad- 
ministration were  selected.  The  rules  and  regulations  were  ex- 
amined for  any  provisions  which  give  him  the  initiative  with  re- 
spect to  recommendations  on  the  erection  or  location  of  buildings 

"  Letter,  March  8,  1916.  A  member  of  the  board  was  appointed  by 
the  superintendent  on  this  professional  committee  of  teachers,  principals, 
and  supervisors.  However,  judging  from  the  writer's  personal  acquaint- 
ance of  the  situation,  this  member  of  the  board,  who  holds  the  degree  of 
Ph.D.,  is  to  be  regarded,  not  as  a  lay,  but  rather  as  a  professional  member 
of  this  committee. 

•■^  Letter  of  the  superintendent,  Feb.  17,  1916. 


Authority  Given  the  Chief  Executive  121 

and  which  give  him  the  power  of  approval  of  architects'  plans. 
They  were  further  examined  for  provisions  which  give  him 
similar  powers  with  respect  to  the  budget. 

a.  Building  Construction 

There  is  a  clear  absence  of  any  specific  provisions  in  most  cities 
giving  the  superintendent  authority  to  approve  or  disapprove  archi- 
tects' plans  for  buildings.  There  is  a  marked  absence  of  specific 
provisions  which  give  the  superintendent  the  initiative  or  which 
require  his  approval  in  matters  of  building  construction.  Few 
boards  make  such  provisions  with  respect  to  recommendations 
for  new  buildings,  their  location,  and  approval  of  architects'  plans 
of  buildings  therefor  or  for  improvement  of  old  buildings.  Very 
general  rules  are  sometimes  found  which  make  it  a  duty  of  the 
superintendent  to  make  recommendations  for  the  improvement 
of  the  school  system.  We  see  no  reason,  however,  for  attaching 
an  interpretation  to  these  liberal  enough  to  include  the  erection  of 
buildings  and  the  responsibility  for  approval  of  plans  when  boards 
do  not  expect  that  such  shall  be  the  case  in  such  matters  as  selec- 
tion of  text-books,  approval  of  courses  of  study,  or  appointment 
of  teachers.  Of  the  hundred  cities  none  were  found  which  re- 
quire that  the  location  of  buildings  shall  meet  the  approval  of  the 
superintendent  as  chief  executive.  His  information  or  sugges- 
tions as  to  plans  are  sought  in  seven  cities:  Fort  Smith,^*  Fre- 
mont,®^ Holyoke,''"  Joplin,^^  Lawrence,^^  Lincoln,''^  Salt  Lake.''* 
In  Philadelphia,  the  superintendent  of  buildings  is  required  by 
law  ''^  to  submit  plans  for  construction  of  new  buildings  to  the 
superintendent  for  criticism.  In  Minneapolis  ''^  and  Denver  ^^ 
the  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs  has 
charge  of  construction.  In  Norwalk  ^^  and  Indianapolis  ''^  the 
superintendent  recommends  alterations  or  enlargements.  In  St. 
Louis  ^°  the  superintendent  reports  to  the  board  on  "new  build- 
ings  or   additions."    He    reports    "defects    or   deficiencies"    in 

68  Rules,  1911,  Chap.  V. 

•8  Statement  of  superintendent  to  the  writer,  Jan.  5,  1916. 

'0  Rules,  1913,  Sec.  34. 

"  Rules,  1915,  Sec.  11.  fs  Rules,  1915. 

"  Rules,  1912.  "  Rules,  Jan.,  1916,  Art.  II. 

"  Rules,  1912,  pp.  15-17.  "  Rules,  1914. 

74  Rules,  1906,  Art  II.  ^9  Rules,  1911,  X. 

'5  School  Laws,  1915,  Sec.  2231.  so  Rules,  1914,  Rule  25. 


122     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Brockton.®^  In  Nashville  *^  local  committees  "shall  visit  the 
schools — confer  with  the  superintendent — and  recommend  im- 
provements." 

Other  than  the  provisions  found  in  the  above  fifteen  cities  we 
find  little  authority  given  to  the  superintendent  by  rule  with  re- 
spect to  the  construction  of  buildings.  ^  Except  for  Joplin  and 
Philadelphia  we  may  seem  to  have  disregarded  those  cities  indi- 
cated in  Table  XII  of  Chapter  II  in  which  the  superintendent 
directs  the  superintendent  of  buildings.  However,  in  each  of  the 
remaining  cases  either  the  superintendent  of  buildings  does  not 
have  charge  of  construction  or  he  is  not  under  direction  of  the 
superintendent  in  such  matters.  From  the  facts  found  it  seems 
a  fair  conclusion  that  many  boards  have  yet  to  recognize  the 
professional  leadership  of  their  chief  executive  in  matters  of 
building  construction. 

b.  The  Budget 

When  we  read  the  rules  and  regulations  for  provisions  refer- 
ring to  budget  making,  we  note  in  a  considerable  number  of  cities 
an  absence  of  any  reference  whatsoever  to  the  budget.  The  term 
"budget"  is  rarely  used,  A  term  commonly  employed  is  "esti- 
mate of  receipts  and  expenditures."  The  absence  of  any  specific 
reference  to  the  superintendent  in  this  connection  in  over  80  per 
cent  of  the  cases  is  evidence  that  most  boards  do  not  expect,  as 
they  might,  to  use  the  budget  as  an  effective  means  of  controlling 
the  chief  executive.  They  cannot  be  said  to  look  upon  the  bud- 
get as  the  instrument  through  which  the  superintendent  is  to 
initiate  proposed  policies.  Not  one  city  was  found  in  which  the 
board  of  education  requires  the  chief  executive  to  submit  a  budget 
as  detailed  as  that  required  of  the  city-manager  in  Dayton.  In 
only  seven  cities,  Denver,  Fremont,  Lawrence,  Lincoln,  Minne- 
apolis, Norwalk,  and  Schenectady  are  we  positive  that  the  budget 
is  prepared  by  the  superintendent  or  under  his  direction.  In 
Denver  ®^  and  Minneapolis  **  the  superintendent  in  conference 
with  the  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs 
prepares  the  budget.     Lawrence  ^'   requires  the   superintendent 

"  Rules,  1915,  Art.  III.  "  Op.  cit,  II-9. 

82  Rules,  1911,  Chap.  V.  "s  Rules,  1912,  Chap.  11. 

««a/».  cit,  Sec.  19. 


Authority  Given  the  Chief  Executive  123 

"to  annually  prepare  an  estimate  of  the  expenses  of  the  schools 
and  to  make  a  report  of  the  same  to  the  board  in  detail."  In 
Norwalk  *°  and  Lincoln  "  the  superintendent  is  required  to  furnish 
the  finance  committee  with  data  on  the  budget  though  in  practice, 
as  in  the  two  remaining  cities,  he  prepares  it.  We  cannot  say  in 
how  many  other  cities  he  prepares  the  budget  in  practice  or  how 
many  have  anything  worthy  of  the  title  of  "budget."  A  complete 
study  of  the  subject  of  school  budgets  would  require  a  study  in 
itself.  We  know  that  in  eight  other  cities  the  superintendent 
either  by  rule  or  practice  is  assigned  the  work  of  preparing  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  budget.  In  Terre  Haute  ®^  he  estimates  the 
needs  of  the  department  of  education  and  attendance,  but  the 
business  director  prepares  the  estimate  for  all  departments. 
Covington,^^  Laramie,^°  Louisville,®^  Milton,  Mass.,®^  and  Sioux 
City,®^  require  him  to  estimate  such  matters  as  books  and  supplies 
or  equipment.  In  Pierce  and  West  Point,  Nebraska,  he  does 
so  as  a  matter  of  practice.  In  another,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  the 
executive  officers  in  practice  assist  the  finance  committee  but  the 
board  revises.  Cleveland  only  mentions  "estimated  receipts  and 
expenditures"  and  then  under  the  duties  of  the  business  director 
who  is  independent  of  the  superintendent.  We  noted  in  Chapter 
II  that  in  both  Indianapolis  and  Boston  the  board  seeks  the  as- 
sistance of  the  business  agent  rather  than  the  superintendent. 
Of  the  eighty  remaining  cities,  forty-nine  assign  to  the  finance 
committee  the  duty  of  either  preparing  the  budget  or  revising  the 
estimates  of  other  committees.  Thirty-one  are  silent  with  re- 
spect to  this  important  matter. 

From  such  facts  as  these  it  appears  that  most  boards  of  educa- 
tion are  neglecting  the  opportunity  to  use  the  chief  executive's 
ability  in  directing  its  financial  policies.  They  do  not  give  him 
the  authority  necessary  to  make  him  the  real  leader  in  matters 
of  educational  and  financial  administration,  neither  do  they  hold 
him  responsible  for  educational  results  through  the  budget,  nor 
do  they  expect  him  to  initiate  new  policies  through  it.  They  fail 
to  avail  themselves  of  the  one  important  instrument  through 
which  a  board  may  exercise  its  legislative  functions,  knowing  defi- 

8«  Rules,  1914,  Sec.  17.  «o  Rules,  1913,  Sec.  31. 

»7  Rules,  1912,  p.  14.  »i  Rules,  1910,  Sec.  13. 

88  Rules,  1914,  pp.  8,  31.  »2  Rules,  1913,  Sec.  16. 

«»  Rules,  1914,  Sec.  36.  "a  Rules,  1912— IX. 


124     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

nitely  just  what  policies  are  to  mean  and  what  is  to  be  achieved 
with  the  money  appropriated,  and  which  at  the  same  time  secures 
a  maximum  of  administrative  leadership  and  responsibility  from 
the  chief  executive  and  his  assistants.  This  failure  to  use  the 
budget  as  an  instrument  of  control  is  probably  a  fault  of  superin- 
tendents as  well  as  boards  of  education.  With  the  gradual  de- 
velopment of  a  class  of  superintendents  who  have  had  a  careful 
training  in  scientific  budget  making  it  is  possible  that  we  may  ex- 
pect some  improvement  in  this  chaotic  condition  in  the  near 
future. 

3.  Summary 

From  the  data  presented  with  respect  to  the  authority  granted 
the  chief  executive  in  purely  professional  matters,  we  see  that 
there  are  boards  in  no  small  number  who  have  not  yet  solved  the 
problem  of  a  judicious  distribution  of  lay  and  professional  con- 
trol. This  is  evident  in  such  instructional  matters  as:  the  ap- 
pointment of  teachers,  their  assignment  and  transfer,  promotion 
in  salaries  and  removal ;  the  selection  of  text-books  and  the  prep- 
aration of  courses  of  study.  It  is  evident  in  such  business  matters 
as  building  construction  and  the  budget.  In  each  of  these  re- 
spects boards  are  found  which  do  not  specifically  recognize  the 
need  of  professional  leadership.  Either  the  board  or  its  com- 
mittee assumes  a  role  in  many  cases  which  is  not  unimportant 
from  the  standpoint  of  efficient  administration.  Comparatively 
few  boards  specifically  designate  the  functions  of  committees  as 
advisory  and  not  administrative.  Few  designate  that  the  superin- 
tendent must  approve  in  these  professional  matters.  This  in 
itself  is  evidence  that  boards  do  not  defer  to  professional  judg- 
ment in  the  same  degree  as  we  find  in  business  administration. 
They  have  not  learned  the  lesson  offered  by  business  organiza- 
tions, namely :  that  efficient  results  can  be  obtained  by  ( 1 )  giving 
to  the  chief  executive  large  powers,  (2)  holding  him  responsible 
for  results,  (3)  and  designating  him  as  the  one  to  initiate  new 
policies. 


CONCLUSIONS  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS 

We  may  summarize  our  findings  in  the  form  of  a  description 
of  the  typical  board  of  education.  It  may  be  described  some- 
what as  follows: 

The  typical  board  of  education  has  from  five  to  nine  members 
and  four  to  six  committees.  It  commonly  has  among  its  com- 
mittees, a  committee  on  buildings,  a  committee  on  finance  and  a 
committee  on  teachers.  These  committees  perform  administra- 
tive as  well  as  legislative  matters.  The  policies  recommended  by 
committees  are  accepted  without  question.  The  board  itself  has 
not  formed  a  clear  conception  of  the  professional  aspects  of  its 
superintendent's  position.  It  spends  much  of  its  own  time  on 
unimportant  matters  and  matters  of  administrative  detail.  It 
does  not  require  that  its  superintendent  shall  make  accurate,  de- 
tailed objective  reports  on  past  achievements  of  the  system  and 
present  proposals  as  a  basis  for  passing  upon  school  policies.  It 
provides  several  executive  officers  each  comparatively  independent 
of  the  superintendent,  whose  scope  of  authority  is  limited.  He 
commonly  makes  recommendations  on  the  appointment  and  as- 
signment of  teachers,  the  selection  of  text-books  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  courses  of  study,  but  he  is  not  assured  that  the  board  will 
not  take  action  altogether  independent  of  his  recommendations. 
The  board  does  not  consider  it  essential  that  the  location  of  build- 
ings and  plans  for  their  construction  shall  meet  educational  re- 
quirements as  recommended  by  the  superintendent.  It  does  not 
consider  it  essential  that  the  budget  shall  be  prepared  by  the 
superintendent  and  his  assistants,  neither  does  it  expect  him  to 
propose  new  policies  through  it  nor  does  it  expect  to  hold  him 
responsible  for  results  through  it. 

Our  conclusions  and  recommendations  are: — 
•    1.     That  a  board  of  education  should  endeavor  to  discover  its 
own  proper  duties  and  those  that  should  be  delegated  to 
professional  executive  officers. 

125 


126    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

2.  That  its  own  function  is  first  of  all 

(a)  to  choose  a  professionally  trained  chief  executive, 
centralize  authority  and  responsibility  for  results  in 
him  and  expect  him  to  initiate  all  policies ;  and  then 

(b)  to  debate  such  proposed  policies  with  him  in  the 
light  of  definite  objective  evidence  and  to  provide 
the  legislation  necessary  to  secure  efficient  results. 

3.  That  a  board  of  education  need  wait  for  no  precedent  to 
adopt  a  form  of  administrative  organization,  in  which  the 
professional  superintendent  is  made  the  administrative 
leader  and  chief  executive  of  the  system,  and  in  which  the 
board  itself  serves  in  an  advisory  and  legislative  capacity 
and  acts  only  through  its  chief  executive.  Such  precedent 
is  amply  provided  by  successful  business  organizations.  ] 

Our  recommendations  will  be  presented  more  in  detail  in  the 
form  of  a  proposed  set  of  rules  and  regulations,  covering  points 
touched  upon  in  the  present  study. 

The  administrative  procedure  we  have  outlined  in  this  study 
may  be  considered  impossible  of  achievement  because  of  certain 
inherent  limitations.  Objections  will  come  from  two  sources,  (1) 
those  who  object  to  what  appears  an  unwarranted  centralization 
of  power  in  a  democratic  system  of  education  and  (2)  those  who 
maintain  that  the  task  outlined  for  the  chief  executive  is  beyond 
the  capacity  of  the  ordinary  superintendent  of  schools.  To  the 
first  of  these  we  will  cite  in  answer  the  form  of  democracy  under 
the  English  national  government.®*  Our  proposed  system  is  a 
parallel  to  this  deferential  system  of  democratic  government 
through  trained  leaders,  and  which  is  possibly  the  most  successful 
form  of  democratic  government  known  to  students  of  govern- 
ment. To  the  second  objection  we  will  agree  that  the  task  is 
beyond  unprepared  superintendents.  It  requires  that  leaders  be 
professionally  trained  and  that  boards  exercise  well  their  most 
important  duty  of  selecting  a  chief  executive  officer. 

9*  For  a  description  of  the  operation  of  the  English  government  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Bagehot:  "English  Constitution,"  or  Lowell,  "Gov- 
ernment of  England." 


/ 


APPENDIX  A 

PROPOSED  RULES  AND  REGULATIONS 
For  a  Board  of  Seven  Members 

Organization — The  board  shall  meet  annually  for  organization  in  the  cen- 
tral administrative  offices  of  the  schools,  at  which  meeting  five  members 
shall  constitute  a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business.  The  superin- 
tendent of  schools  as  chief  executive  officer  shall  serve  as  president  of 
the  board.  At  this  meeting  the  board  shall  elect  a  treasurer.  The  presi- 
dent shall  at  this  meeting  or  as  soon  as  he  deems  advisable  thereafter 
announce  the  standing  committees  for  the  year.  These  committees  shall 
be  a  committee  on  buildings,  a  committee  on  .finance,  a  committee  on 
teachers  and  such  other  special  committees  as  the  superintendent  may  from 
time  to  time  desire  and  the  board  approve. 

Meetings — The  board  shall  meet  regularly  each  month  at  such  hour  as 
the  president  may  from  time  to  time-  designate.  Special  meetings  shall 
be  held  at  the  direction  of  the  president  or  upon  the  written  request  of 
three  members. 

Committees — The  duties  of  all  committees  shall  be  advisory  and  not 
executive.  The  chief  executive  shall  have  power  to  refer  current  business 
to  appropriate  committees  for  consideration.  It  shall  be  the  primary 
function  of  committees  to  consider  the  reports  of  executive  officers. 

Finance  committee — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  finance  committee  to 
consider  all  important  matters  of  financial  policy.  It  shall  consider  the 
recommendations  of  the  chief  executive  for  additional  capital  outlays  and 
the  means  of  financing  such  outlays.  It  shall  consider  the  annual  budget 
for  maintenance  in  conference  with  the  chief  executive  and  the  assistant 
superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs.  It  shall  consider  the  reports 
of  the  treasurer  and  of  the  assistant  superintendent  of  business  affairs  on 
the  financial  status  of  the  system. 

Building  committee — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  building  committee  to 
consider,  in  conference  with  the  chief  executive  and  the  assistant  super- 
intendent in  charge  of  business  affairs,  the  recommendations  on  the  loca- 
tion of  buildings  and  sites  and  construction  of  new  school  buildings.  It_ 
shall  consider  the  recommendations  of  the  chief  executive  for  the  altera- 
tion and  improvement  of  old  buildings.  It  shall,  in  conference  with  the 
chief  executive  and  the  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business 
affairs,  examine  plans  and  specifications.    It  shall  be  the  duty  of  this 

127 


/ 


128     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

committee  to  consider  the  report  of  the  assistant  superintendent  of  busi- 
ness affairs  as  it  pertains  to  buildings. 

Committee  on  teachers — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  committee  on  teach- 
ers to  advise  with  the  superintendent,  affording  a  group  judgment,  on  his 
recommendations  for  extensions  or  readjustments  of  the  scope  of  educa- 
tional activities.  It  shall  consider  the  report  of  the  superintendent  con- 
cerning the  progress  of  the  schools. 

Executive  officers — 

The  superintendent — The  superintendent  of  schools  shall  be  the  chief 
executive  officer.    He  shall  be  the  administrative  head  of  all  departments 
and  shall  be  responsible  for  their  efficient  administration. 
Powers  and  duties: 

Nominations — He  shall  have  sole  authority  to  nominate  to  the  board 
for  appointment  all  assistant  executive  officers  in  charge  of  departnjents. 
He  shall  nominate  all  assistant  superintendents,  in  the  educational  depart- 
ment and  all  supervisors  and  principals.  He  shall  nominate  a  chief  attend- 
ance officer  and  a  chief  medical  inspector. 

Appointments — No  person  shall  be  appointed  or  elected  to  any  position 
if  the  chief  executive  ts^Scer  disapproves  of  such  appointment  or  elec- 
tion. He  shall  conduct  or  cause  to  be  conducted  all  examinations,  both - 
■written^  or  oral,  for  positions  as  teachers.  He  shall  have  power  to  select 
and  appoint  all  teachers  subject  only  to  disapproval  by  a  five-sevenths  vote 
of  the  board. 

Assignments  and  transfers — He  shall  make  such  assignments  «nd~reas- 
signments  or  transfers  as  in  his  professional  judgment  are  necessary  to 
secure  the  highest  efficiency  in  teaching. 

Improvement  of  teachers  in  service — He  shall  be  charged  with  the 
responsibility  of  all  measures  for  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service. 
He  shall  at  all  times,  with  the  aid  of  such  professional  assistance  as  he  may 
command,  labor  for  improvement  in  the  efficiency  of  the  teaching  and 
supervisory  staff. 

He  shall  keep  detailed  records  of  efforts  and  achievements  in  the  direc- 
tion of  improvement.  The  board  does  not  desire  to  know  how  many 
visits  of  supervisors  have  "been  made  or  how  many  teachers'  meetings 
have  been  held,  but  it  demands  a  report  upon  the  achievements  of  such 
visits  and  meetings.  No  teacher,  principal  or  supervisor  shall  be  dis- 
missed until  the  superintendent  presents  the  records  of  efforts  made  to 
improve  such  teacher,  principal  or  supervisor. 

That  teachers  may  have  adequate  personal  supervision,  the  board  agrees 
to  appoint  such  departmental  and  special  supervisors  as  the  superintendent 
deems  necessary.  The  board  demands  that  the  superintendent  and  his 
assistants  capitalize  the  success  of  especially  capable  teachers,  and  for 
that  purpose  the  superintendent  may  require  any  teacher  to  observe  the 
teaching  of   successful  teachers  at  his   discretion.     He   shall  report  the 


Appendix  A  129 

amount  of  substitute  service  required  for  such  purpose  to  the  board  for 
approval.  He  shall  be  permitted  to  order  the  dismissal  of  any  room  or 
grade  for  3«gH- attendance  upon  teachers'  meetings  as  he  deems  advisable. 
He  shall  report  the  amount  of  such  time  granted  to  the  board  for  ap- 
proval. He  shall,  with  the  aid  of  his  assistants,  from  time  to  time  issue 
bulletins,  circulars  and  courses  of  study,  containing  suggestive  methods  for 
the  guidance  of  teachers.  He  shall  conduct  such  annual  institutes  as  may 
be  required  by  law,  or  as  he  may  determine,  and  shall  have  power  to  ex- 
pend such  amounts  for  the  services  of  specialists  in  education  as  ap- 
proved in  the  budget. 

Leaves  of  absence — The  superintendent  may  recommend  teachers  who 
have  been  in  the  employ  of  the  board  for  a  period  of  six  years  to  be 
granted  one  year's  leave  of  absence  for  study  under  conditions  approved 
by  him,  such  teachers  to  receive  a  salary  equal  to  one-half  of  the  salary 
regularly  received,  provided,  however,  that  eligibility  to  such  salary  allow- 
ance shall  be  on  condition  that  such  teacher  continue  in  the  service  of  the 
system  for  three  additional  years. 

Salaries — The  superintendent  shall  recommend  the  schedule  of  salaries 
to  the  board  for  approval.  Such  schedule  shall  provide  minimum  and 
.maximum  schedules  and  annual  increases,  said  increases  to  be  conditioned 
upon  successful  service  approved  by  the  superintendent.  Increases  be- 
yond the  schedule  increases  or  beyond  the  maximum  for  any  class  shall 
be  conditioned  upon  extraordinary  merit,  and  must  be  recommended  by 
the  superintendent  and  approved  by  the  board.  For  the  satisfactory  com- 
pletion of  courses  in  one  summer  term  or  its  equivalent  of  such  courses, 
and  in  such  institutions  as  shall  be  approved  by  the  superintendent,  teach- 
ers shall,  on  recommendation  of  the  superintendent,  receive  a  salary  in- 
crease of  $50. 

Removal  of  teachers — The  superintendent  may  suspend  teachers  for 
cause.  Such  suspension  shall  be  reported  to  the  l?oard.  No  teacher  shall 
be  recommended  for  dismissal  except  upon  evidence  that  the  superin- 
tendent has  used  every  available  means  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  the 
teacher  in  question  without  success.  All  removals  shall  be  subject  to 
contract  terms,  provided  that  teachers  may  be  removed  at  any  time  for 
cause. 

Selection  of  text-books — The  superintendent  shall,  with  the  aid  of  such 
professional  assistance  as  may  be  avaitabte,  select  all  text-books  to  be 
used  in  the  schools,  provided  that  all  purchases  shall  be  within  the  ap- 
propriation of  the  budget  for  text-books  and  provided  the  board  may 
disapprove  changes  only  by  a  five-sevenths  vote. 

Courses  of  study — The  superintendent  shall  propose  the  subjects  to  be 
taught.  After  approval  by  the  board  he  shall,  with  such  professional 
assistance  as  may  be  available,  prepare  minimum  courses  of  study,  includ- 
ing therein  statements  of  principles  and  aims,   suggestive  methods  and 


130    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

lesson  plans.  When  such  courses  or  important  changes  therein  are  pre- 
pared, he  shall  report  them  to  the  board,  and  unless  disapproved  by  a 
five-sevenths  vote  of  the  board,  they  shall  stand  approved.  He  shall  pre- 
scribe the  distribution  of  time  among  the  several  subjects.  He  may 
authorize  principals  to  make  such  variations  from  the  allotted  schedule 
as  locality  needs  may  demand. 

Initiating  new  policies — The  superintendent  of  schools,  as  chief  execu- 
tive officer,  shall  initiate  all  policies. 

The  budget — He  shall  annually,  with  the  assistance  of  the  assistant 
superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs,  prepare  the  budget  of  ex- 
penditures and  receipts  for  all  departments.  He  shall  recommend  trans- 
fers of  funds  within  the  budget.  The  budget  shall  contain  as  a  minimum 
the  following  information : 

1.  A  summary  of  proposed  expenditures  and  probable  receipts  with 
similar  data  in  parallel  columns  fo^  the  present  and  the  two 
preceding  fiscal  years. 

2.  A  detailed  estimate  of  proposed  expenditures  for  each  department 
showing  in  parallel  columns  expenditures  for  the  two  preceding 
fiscal  years,  together  with  expenditures  for  corresponding  items 
for  the  current  fiscal  year,  including  adjustments  due  to  transfers 
between  appropriations  plus  an  estimate  of  the  probable  addi- 
tional expenditures  and  unappropriated  balances  for  the  re- 
mainder of  the  current  fiscal  year,  together  with  the  amount  of 
supplies  and  materials  on  hand. 

3.  Increases  or  decreases  of  requests  compared  with  corresponding 
appropriations  for  current  and  previous  years. 

All  estimates  shall  be  in  terms  of  unit  specifications  accompanied  by  such 
data  as  may  be  necessary  to  show  whether  increases  or  decreases  for 
any  given  item  are  due  to  changes  in  cost,  in  quality  or  in  amount  of 
materials  or  service  to  be  purchased. 

Expenditures  for  each  major  item  shall  indicate  the  per  cent  which  it 
represents  of  the  total  expenditures  accompanied  by  similar  figures  for 
the  present  and  the  two  preceding  years,  and  for  other  cities  of  its  class 
and  locality. 

All  expenditures  for  text-books,  supplies,  administrative  control,  super- 
vision, instruction,  fuel,  janitors'  service  and  supplies  shall  be  shown 
in  per  pupil  cost  terms. 

The  proposed  budget  shall  be  accompanied  by  data  showing  the  tax- 
able wealth  per  child,  the  amount  of  indebtedness,  the  tax  rate  for  all  pur- 
poses and  for  schools  compared  with  similar  expenditures  in  other  cities 
of  its  class  and  locality. 

Such  analytical  data  shall  be  accompanied  by  such  graphic  representa- 
tions as  may  be  necessary  to  show  the  full  effect  thereof. 

The  proposed  budget  shall  be  accompanied  by  brief  statements  of  ex- 
planation in  all  instances  where  significant  changes  from  previous  years 
are  proposed. 


Appendix  A  131 

Buildings — The  superintendent  shall  make  recommendations  to  the 
board  for  the  erection  of  new  buildings  and  the  alteration  or  improvement 
of  old  buildings.  He  shall  recommend  the  location  and  shall  approve  all 
plans  and  specifications  for  construction. 

Supplies  and  equipment — The  superintendent  shall  recommend  all  ap- 
paratus, supplies  and  equipment  to  be  purchased  and  the  specifications 
thereof  to  the  board  as  a  part  of  the  detailed  budget.  No  specifications 
shall  be  adopted  without  his  approval.  He  may  authorize  expenditures 
not  provided  in  the  budget  in  such  amounts  as  the  board  shall  from  time 
to  time  approve. 

By-laws  and  rules — The  superintendent  shall  prepare  and  submit  to  the 
board  for  approval  by-laws  prescribing  the  authority  and  responsibility 
of  executive  officers.  He  shall  prepare  rules  for  the  government  of  su- 
pervisors, principals,  teachers  and  pupils. 

The  superintendents  report — The  superintendent  shall  report  to  the 
board  on  all  important  matters  of  administration.  He  shall  make  such 
reports  as  may  be  necessary  to  exhibit  the  efficiency  of  all  departments. 
He  shall  accompany  all  proposed  policies  by  such  statistical  data  as  may 
be  necessary  to  show  specifically  past  achievements  and  present  conditions. 
He  shall  direct  the  preparation  of  the  reports  of  all  subordinate  executive 
officers.  He  shall  direct  the  records  to  be  kept  and  reports  to  be  made 
by  principals,  supervisors  and  teachers. 

The  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs — He  shall 
perform  his  duties  under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent.  He  shall 
act  as  the  financial  and  purchasing  agent  of  the  board.  He  shall  have 
charge  of  the  construction,  operation  and  maintenance  of  buildings  and 
equipment. 

He  shall,  under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent,  and  within  the  limits 
of  the  detailed  budget  adopted  by  the  board,  make  all  purchases  and  ex- 
penditures.   Such  expenditures  shall  be  reported  to  the  board. 

He  shall,  when  authorized  by  the  board,  invest  the  funds  of  the  board, 
change  securities  and  place  insurance  as  the  board  may  determine. 

He  shall  purchase  all  supplies,  equipment  and  other  materials  as  the 
superintendent  may  direct  within  the  appropriation  of  the  budget. 

He  shall  have  authority  to  call  for  bids  upon  construction,  fuel,  sup- 
plies, equipment  and  other  materials  upon  specifications  approved  by  the 
board.  He  shall  require  all  bids  to  be  accompanied  by  a  certified  check 
in  such  proportion  of  the  amount  of  the  contract  as  the  board  may  from 
time  to  time  determine. 

He  shall  prepare,  or  cause  to  be  prepared,  under  the  direction  of  the  su- 
perintendent, all  plans  and  specifications  for  the  construction  of  new 
buildings  and  improvements  or  alterations  of  old  buildings. 

He  shall  recommend  necessary  repairs  to  the  superintendent,  who 
shall  make  all  recommendations  to  the  board  for  the  erection  or  improve- 
ment of  buildings. 


132     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

He  shall  audit  claims,  approve  all  bills,  prepare  all  pay  rolls  and  approve 
all  payments  on  construction  contracts. 

He  shall  nominate  all  subordinate  officers  in  his  department  to  the  su- 
perintendent, and  shall  appoint  all  janitors  and  other  employees  of  his 
department,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  superintendent. 

He  shall  prepare  for  the  approval  of  the  superintendent  the  necessary 
rules  for  the  government  of  his  department. 

He  shall  perform  such  other  duties  as  the  superintendent  may  direct. 

The  report  of  the  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs — 
The  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs  shall  report  cur- 
rently and  at  such  other  times  as  the  board  or  the  superintendent  may 
direct.  Such  report  shall  be  made  to  the  chief  executive  for  report  to 
and  examination  by  the  board,  giving  all  important  matters  of  business 
transacted  or  pending  and  the  financial  status  of  the  system.  Such  reports 
shall  be  adequate  to  show  in  detail  the  full  effect  of  all  transactions. 

He  shall  report  upon  the  progress  of  construction  and  upon  improve- 
ments made. 

Communications  and  complaints — All  communications  and  complaints 
shall  be  presented  to  the  secretary  to  the  superintendent  in  writing.  Other 
than  formal  and  official  communications  shall  be  reduced  to  the  form  of  a 
brief  not  to  exceed  300  words  in  length.  The  superintendent  and  his 
assistants  may,  if  they  deem  advisable,  grant  a  hearing,  either  private  or 
public,  to  the  parties  interested.  Only  in  case  satisfactory  adjustment  can- 
not be  made  by  the  superintendent  and  his  assistants  shall  such  com- 
munications or  complaints  be  referred  to  the  board.  In  such  event  the 
board,  after  considering  the  brief  and  additional  evidence  submitted  by 
the  superintendent  will,  if  it  deems  advisable,  grant  a  hearing  to  the 
parties  interested. 

Amendments — These  rules  and  regulations  shall  not  be  amended  during 
the  time  of  the  superintendent's  term  of  office,  except  as  he  shall  approve, 
or  in  accord  with  the  terms  of  his  contract  with  the  board. 


APPENDIX  B 

In  selecting  the  one  hundred  cities  whose  rules  were  to  be  con- 
sidered in  this  study,  an  effort  was  made  to  include  cities  of  all 
sizes  selected  approximately  at  random.  They  were  finally 
chosen  from  those  whose  rules  were  received  at  Bryson  Library, 
Teachers  College.  Many  cities  which  would  have  made  de- 
sirable material  for  study  were  necessarily  omitted  because  they 
had  not  published  rules  and  regulations  within  recent  years.  To 
secure  the  required  one  hundred  it  was  necessary  to  include  some 
whose  rules  were  not  of  as  late  date  as  might  be  desired.  A 
number  of  these  were  received  as  late  as  October  1915  as  the  last 
rules  published  of  the  board.  The  cities  of  Table  II  were  selected 
in  a  similar  manner. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Business  and  Governmental 

Bagehot.    The  English  Constitution. 

Business  Management.    Pub.  A.  W.  Shaw  Co. 

Dayton,  Charter  adopted  Aug.   12,  1913. 

Dayton,  Report  of  the  City-Manager  of,  Jan.- June,  1914. 

Lowell.    Government  of  England,  1908. 

Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Co.  of  N.  Y.    Charter  and  By-Laws,  1915. 

New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  Railroad  Co.    Organization  of  the 

Operating  Department,  1908. 
New  York  Telephone  Co.     Organization,  1912. 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Co.    By-Laws  and  Organization,  1913. 

Educational 
Ballou.    The  Appointment  of  Teachers  in  Cities.     Harvard  University 

Press,   1915. 
Bard.    City  School  District.    Teachers   College  Contributions  to  Educa- 
tion No.  28.  1909. 
CuBBERLEY.    Public  School  Administration.    Macmillan,  1916. 

133 


134    The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Deffenbagh.  School  Administration  in  the  Smaller  Cities.  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education,  Bui.,  1915,  No.  44. 

Elliott.  Fiscal  Aspects  of  Public  Education.  Teachers  College  Con- 
tributions to  Education  No.  6,  1905. 

MooRE.  How  New  York  Administers  Its  Schools.  World  Book  Co., 
1913. 

Strayer.  City  School  Expenditures.  Teachers  College  Contributions  to 
Education  No.  5,  1905. 

Updegraff.  a  Study  of  Expenses  of  City  School  Systems.  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education,  Bui.,  1912,  No.  5. 

Board  Rules  Referred  to  in  This  Study 

Norwalk.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1914. 

Chester,  Pa.    Rules  of  the  Board,  1915. 

Cleveland.    Rules   Governing  the   Board,    1915. 

Akron,  Ohio.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1914. 

New  York.    By-Laws  of  the  Board,  1914. 

Salt  Lake.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1906.    City  Survey,  1915. 

Waltham,  Mass.    Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools,  1911. 

New  Orleans.    Rules  and  By-Laws  of  the  Board  of  Directors,  1913. 

Wausau,  Wis.    General  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools,  1914. 

Grand  Rapids.    Rules  of  the  Board,  1913. 

St.  Louis.    Rules  and  Charter  of  the  Board,  1914. 

Yonkers,   N.  Y.    By-Laws  and  Rules,   1914. 

Detroit.    Rules  of  the  Board,  1914. 

Rochester.    Rules   and   Regulations   of   the   Board,   1915. 

Fall  River,  Mass.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1909. 

Minneapolis.    By-Laws,  1915. 

Syracuse.    By-Laws  and  Rules,  1913. 

Newton,  Mass.    Rules  of  the  School  Committee,  1911. 

Baltimore.    Rules  of  the  Board,  1913. 

New   Haven.    Rules   and   Regulations,   1910.    Amend.,   1915. 

Bridgeport,   Conn.     Rules   of   the   Board,    1915. 

Newburyport,    Mass.    Rules    of   the    School   Committee,    1908.    Amend., 

1915. 
Boston.    Rules  of  the  School  Committee,  1915   (Proposed). 
Denver.    By-Laws  of  the  Board  of   Directors,   1916. 
Covington,  Ky.    Rules  Governing  the  Board,  1914. 
Louisville.     Rules  Governing  the  Board,  1910. 
San  Francisco.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1910. 
Cedar  Rapids,  la.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1914, 
St.  Joseph.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1913. 
Evansville,  Ind.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1914. 
Fort  Worth.    Rules   and   Regulations,   1913. 
Moline,  111.    By-Laws  and  Rules.  1915. 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.    By-Laws  and  School  Regulations,  1915. 


Bibliography  135 

Elgin.  111.    Rules  of  the  Board.  1915. 

Spokane.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1915. 

Houston.    By-Laws  of  the  Board  of  Trustees,   1914. 

Laramie,  Wyo.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1913. 

Lead,  S.  D.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1908. 

Topeka.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1914. 

Nashville.    Rules,  1911. 

Chicago.    Rules,  1910. 

Providence.    By-Laws  of  the  School  Committee,   1914. 

Winston-Salem.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1914. 

Sioux  City,  la.    Rules  and  Regulations,   1912. 

Cape  Girardeau.    Rules  and  Regulations,   1914. 

Seattle.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1908. 

Greeley,  Colo.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1912. 

Calumet,  Mich.    General  Rules  and  Courses  of  Study  of  Public  Schools, 

1913. 
Lebanon,  Pa.    Rules  of  the  Board,  1914. 
Pawtucket,  R.  L    Rules  and  Regulations,  1914. 
Portland,  Ore.    Rules  and   Regulations,   1915. 
Terre  Haute.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1914. 
Paterson.    Rules  of  the  Board,  1911. 
Richmond.    By-Laws  and  Regulations,   1914. 
Brookline,  Mass.     Rules  of  the  School  Committee,  1914. 
Pittsfield,  Mass.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1911. 
Columbus,  Ohio.    Rules  of  the  Board,  1910. 
JoHet,  111.    Rules  of  the  Board  of  School  Inspectors,  1912. 
Omaha.    Rules  Governing  the  Schools,  1913. 
Lincoln,  Neb.    Rules,  1912. 
Indianapolis.    Rules,    1911. 
Beverley,  Mass.    Rules  and  Regulations,   1912. 
Brockton,  Mass.    Rules  of  the  School  Committee,  1915. 
Central  Falls,  R.  I.    Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  School  Committee,  1914. 
Westport,  Mass.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1909. 
Waterbury,  Conn.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1914. 
Philadelphia.    By-Laws  and  Rules,  1914. 

Harrisburg.    Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  School  District,  1912. 
Schenectady.    By-Laws  and  Rules,  1908. 

Pine  Bluffs,  Ark.    Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools,  1914. 
Fort  Smith,  Ark.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1911. 
Montgomery,  Ala.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1914. 
Manchester,  N.  H.    Rules  of  the  School  Committee,  1915. 
Joplin,  Mo.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1915. 
Lockport,  N.  Y.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1910. 
Freeport,  N.  Y.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1914. 
Everett,  Wash.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1912. 
Oakland,  Cal.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1910. 


136     The  City  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  Education 

Fargo,  N.   D.    Rules  and  Regulations,   1913. 

Charleston,  S.  C.     Rules  for  the  Government  of  the  Public  Schools,  1912. 

Boulder,  Colo.    By-Laws  and  Rules,  1914. 

Wakefield,  Mass.    Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  School  Committee,  1910. 

Wichita.    By-Laws  and  Rules,   1913. 

Johnstown,  Pa.     Rules  and  Regulations,  1912.     Amend.,  1915. 

Charlotte,  N.  C.    By-Laws  and  Rules,  1916. 

Columbia,  S.  C.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1913. 

Racine,  Wis.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1910. 

Newport,  Ky.     Rules  and  Regulations,  1910. 

Worcester,  Mass.     Rules  of  the  School  Committee,  1913. 

Milton,  Mass.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1913. 

Holyoke,   Mass.    Rules  and   Regulations,   1913. 

Lawrence,  Mass.     Rules  of  the  School  Committee,  1912. 

Kansas   City,   Mo.    Rules  and  Regulations,   1909. 

West  Point,  Neb.    Regulations  Governing  the  Board,  1910. 

Pierce,  Neb.    Rules,  unpublished. 

Cortland,  N.  Y.    By-Laws  and  Rules,  1912. 

Fremont,  Neb.    Rules,  unpublished. 

Portland,  Me.     Rules  and  Regulations,   1912. 

Middleton,  N.  Y.    Rules  and  Regulations,  1915. 

Winchester,  Mass.     Rules  and  Regulations,   1912. 

Board  Minutes   Referred  to  in  This   Study 

Seattle.    Oct.  18,  1915. 

Pittsburg.    Nov.  10,  24,  Dec.  9,  24,  1913 ;  Jan.  5,  20,  1914. 

St.  Louis.    April  13,  May  11,  28,  June  8,  July  13,  Sept.  14,  Oct.  5,  8,  12, 

1915. 
Reading.    June  16,  July  6,  21,  Aug.  18,  Sept.  15,  Oct.  20,  Nov.  17,  1914. 
Worcester.    May  4,  June  1,  28,  Sept.  7,  Oct.  5,  Nov.  2,  1915. 
Newark.    April  29,  May  27,  June  8,  18,  24,  30,  July  29,  Aug.  26,  Sept.  30, 

1915. 
Albany.    June  7,  28,  July  6,  19,  Aug.  5,  Sept.  20,  Oct.  4,  Nov.  1,  1915. 
Milwaukee.    June  1,  30,  July  6,  Aug.  3,  Sept.  7,  Oct.  5,  1915. 
Somerville.     March  1,  9,  29,  April  26,  May  24,  June  28,  Sept.  1,  27,  1915. 
Lancaster.    June  1,  July  6,  Aug.  5,  Sept.  2,  Oct.  7,  Nov.  4,  1915. 
Muskegon.    July  9,  16,  Aug.  13,  Sept.  1,  10,  17,  1915. 
East  Orange.    Oct.  1,  11,  25,  Nov.  8,  22,  1915. 
Grand  Rapids.     May  3,  17,  24,  June  7,  21,  23,  July  6,  Aug.  2,  23,  Sept.  7, 

20,  Oct.  4,  18,  1915. 
Lincoln.  July  6,  15,  27,  Aug.  12,  25,  Sept.  1,  7,  21,  30,  Oct.  8,  19,  1915. 
Omaha.  July  6,  16,  Aug.  2,  16,  Sept.  7,  20,  Oct.  4,  18,  Nov.  1,  15,  1915. 
Fremont.  April  7,  24,  May  6,  June  7,  July  7,  Aug.  2,  Sept.  6,  Oct.  4,  1915. 
West  Point.  June  7,  Aug.  2,  5,  23,  Sept.  16,  Oct.  4,  Nov.  1,  Dec.  6,  1915. 
Pierce.    June  14,  July  12,  27,  Sept.  9,  14,  Nov.  10,  24,  Dec.  14,  1915. 


Bibliography  137 

Schenectady.    May  11,  June  8,  15,  22,  July  13,  Sept.  9,  Oct.  12,  Nov.  9,  Dec. 

2,  17,  1915. 
Dunkirk.    Sept.  13,  Oct.  11,  19,  23,  1915. 
Millville.     Oct.  6,  Nov.  3,  1915. 
Topeka.    Dec.  6,  9,  13,  1915 ;  Jan.  3,  1916. 
Framingham.    Oct.  4,  18,  Nov.  1,  15,  Dec.  6,  21,  1915. 
Whitehall.    Nov.  8,  22,  1915. 

La  Porte.    Aug.  2,  14,  16,  Oct.  4,  Nov.  1,  Dec.  6,  1915. 
Benton  Harbor.    Dec.  4,  1915;  Jan.  8,  10,  1916. 
Boise.    July  12,  Aug.  23,  31,  Sept.  13,  Oct.  13,  27,  1915. 
Bloomington.    Sept.  11,  Oct.  22,  Nov.  5,  22,  1915. 
Kewanee.    Nov.  2,  Dec.  7,  1915. 
Burlington.    June  4,  11,  17,  26,  July  2,  Aug.  4,  Sept.  3,  13,  Oct.  1,  Nov.  5, 

1915. 
Paducah.    Sept.  3,  Oct.  6,  Nov.  3,  1915. 
Salem.     Sept.  13,  20,  Oct.  11,  25,  Nov.  1,  10,  22,  1915. 
Council  Bluffs.    March  15,  Sept.  7,  Oct.  5,  1915. 
New  Orleans.    Aug.  26,  Nov.  24,  1915. 
Richmond.    Oct.  22,  Nov.  22,  30,  Dec.  17,  1915. 
Carthage.    Oct.  5,  Nov.  2,  9,  Dec.  7,  1915. 
Owatonna.    July  6,  Oct.  6,  8,  Nov.  2,  Dec.  7,  1915. 
Martins  Ferry.    June  25,  30,  July  9,  22,  Aug.  5,  16,  26,  Sept.  6,  20,  30,  Oct. 

18,  28,  Nov.  15,  23,  1915. 
Waterloo.    March  18,  26,  April  1,  15,  1913. 
Bellaire.    Nov.  15,  1915. 
Mansfield.    Sept.  15,  21,  Oct.  2,  5,  1915. 
Plattsmouth.    Oct.  4,  Nov.  1,  Dec.  6,  1915. 
Wichita.    Oct.  4,  8,  1915. 
Lead.    Nov.  12,  1915. 

San  Antonio.    Oct.  16,  19,  Nov.  2,  Dec.  8,  1915. 
Mitchell.    July  30,  Sept.  8,  1915. 
Des  Moines.    July  27,  Oct.  12,  19,  1915. 
Winfield.    Oct.  1,  Nov.  1,  Dec.  6,  13,  1915. 
Kalamazoo.    May  18,  27,  June  1,  7,  IS,  July  6,  15,  20,  Aug.  3,  Sept.  7,  21, 

Oct.  5,  19,  1915. 
Ypsilanti.    Sept.  9,  16,  Oct.  5,  15,  16,  27,  Nov.  5,  Dec.  7,  1915. 
Chatham.    July  27,  Aug.  31,  Sept.  28,  Oct.  26,  Nov.  30,  Dec.  28,  1915. 
Louisville.    July  13  and  23,i  Oct.  30,  Nov.  2,  1915. 
Montclair.    Oct.  26,  Nov.  9,  23,  1915. 
Bridgeport.    Dec.  14,  29,  1915 ;  Jan.  10,  16,  Feb.  10,  1916. 
Chicago.    Dec.  8,  10,  22,  1915 ;  Jan.  5,  19,  1916. 

Jersey  City.    June  2,  16,  23,  30,  July  7,  21,  20,  Aug.  18,  30,  Sept.  1,  1915. 
Cleveland.     Sept.  7,  13,  20,  27,  1915. 

Elizabeth.    Oct.  8,  20,  Nov.  12,  Dec.  10,  1914;  Jan.  14,  28,  1915. 
New  York.    Sept.  15,  29,  Oct.  13,  27,  1915. 
Los  Angeles.    Jan.  20,  24,  1916. 


DATE  DUE 

i 

GAYLORD 

PRINTED  IN  U.S.A. 

DATE  DUE 


,"      ,i             U-''^ 

PI 

CUJlll    ?.-'^ 

1974 

WC^R2Q 

197$ 

»»*n<     — »-  r 

6  ^^"^^ 

KCu  dli 

1 
1 

CAYLCRD 

PRINTED  IN  U    S    A. 

mmmtm^m^^^^^  "-'BfiARv  faciuty 


A     000  528  951     7 


fHsrir- 


